The connective -bhl Countering connectives

Thus the connective occurs at the transition point between the introduction of the narrative and the beginning of the story, as in example 167a, or at the transition point to the complication phase, as in 167b. The scope of this connective is thus much larger than that of the other connectives. 12 167 a. -mää - zёküü ylʋʋ - ʋ plöö- bhlä nä ADD 5 adjacent_day: GEN day: DEF NH 3: REL pass: CP PST 1: LOP SP 1 ‘Now yesterday lit. the one day from now that passed, ʋmʋ kʋ nä wälɩklё -bhlogbe -bhlü bhä NH 3: TH on SP 1 matter:part one_single fall PST 1 that day lit. on it a certain thing happened.’ [greve 15–17] b. nɩ ɛ yi - mɔɔ plöö nɩ ɛ yi sä pu o ADD 1 NH 2 XFUT LOC pass: APL ADD 1 NH 2 XFUT VPC lie:down EXCL 2 ‘then he went inside and lay down -maa, g wɛ puu- sä ADD 5 chimpanzee lie_down: CP VPC However, when the chimpanzee had lain down, -mä plɛɛ bhlüe- - wʋ ADD 4 liver: XNEG be_quiet: CP CNT 2 his heart wasn’t at peace.’ [gwebhutu 19–22]

8.2 Countering connectives

As discussed in §8.1.1 and §8.1.4 above, the additive connectives n ɩ and -mä can have countering or adversative readings in certain contexts. In other words, they may yield countering or adversative contextual effects. By contrast, a true countering connective always constrains a countering interpretation, as Levinsohn 2007:191 points out: “If a particular connective constrains a countering or adversative interpretation, then it will always introduce material that counters some event or expectation.” The only connectives in Godié that have been found to correspond to this description are - bhl ɛ and -wʋ.

8.2.1 The connective -bhl

ɛ ‘CNT1’ The word -bhl ɛ in Godié occurs not only as a countering connective but also as a time adverb with the meaning ‘for the time being’, ‘for now’, or ‘at this point’. 13 The countering connective -bhl ɛ results from the reanalysis of this adverb. A few examples of -bhl ɛ as an adverb will be given before discussing -bhlɛ as a countering connective. 14 168 a. - lɔɔ n bhloo - bhlɛ there 1 S stop: ICP for_now ‘There I stop for now.’ [elisabet 110] 12 Its increased phonetic substance can be seen as a case of iconicity, inasmuch as it correlates with a larger scope. 13 Gratrix 1978:314 and Marchese 1978:70 mention a low tone particle b ɛɛ in the Jluko dialect of Godié used for connecting two clauses that express simultaneous events. This particle appears to be the equivalent of -bhl ɛ in the Kagbo dialect described in this study. 14 In example 171 the form of the pronoun ɔɔ orients to the phonological form of the referent pɛpɛlɩɔ, rather than to its gender, which is non-human plural see §2.2. b. säsä -a gä bhä nʋ -yä p ɛpɛlɩɔ -a -yi lä - bhlɛ nä how? 1 P XPOT QW do ADD 2 little 1 P know LOP for_now SP ‘… what can we do lit. how can we act so that the little that we know at this point, ɔɔ kä -kä bhä kʋ büoo NHP : XNEG XPOT CLU 3 QW VPC forget: PSV : Q it will not be forgotten?’ [soutien 49–51] In narrative texts, the adverb -bhl ɛ is used with durative events that are set off against another event, generally one that is more salient. The narrative is then put on hold as it were, while attention is directed to the process during which the next event of the narrative takes place. The presence of -bhl ɛ in the first clause anticipates that next event referred to in the second clause, as shown in examples 169a and 169b. This use of -bhl ɛ thus already shows characteristics of a connective, even though it does not link the information of the clause to information already given but rather to upcoming information. The adverb sää, translated ‘in this way’, frequently occurs in the first clause describing the process, as illustrated in 169b. The two clauses are linked by the connective ‘ n ɩ. 15 169 a. a kä - bhlɛ bhlü nɩ Goplëa yi yi NH 1 XPOT CNT 1 fall ADD 1 Gopleu: DEF XFUT come ‘It the tree was about to fall when Gopleu came …’ ‘As it the tree was about to fall, Gopleu came …’ [sigo 274–275] b. ɛ cie - bhlɛ sää - dʋdʋ ŋëlɩ NH 2 begin: ICP CNT 1 in_this_way ground arrive: NOM ‘He =the chimpanzee was about to reach the ground nɩ - gbäpʋʋ kpɔtɔ- lä - mɔɔ ŋɔkʋ ADD 1 ridge_beam break: CP LOP LOC above when the ridge beam broke there above him …’ ‘As he =chimpanzee was about to reach the ground, the central pillar broke there above him …’ [gwebhutu 33–34] Examples like the preceding ones provide the basis for the reanalysis of the adverb -bhl ɛ as a countering connective. Indeed, an event in process and a punctiliar event that happens during this process can easily be seen to be in contrast, in the same way as two simultaneous events do. 16 By further generalization of the idea of contrast, -bhl ɛ is then gradually reanalyzed as a countering connective. The process of reanalysis is likely to have been favoured by syntactic contexts where the verb has no object and -bhl ɛ thus ends the clause expressing the process. This position makes it possible to reanalyse -bhl ɛ as introducing the second clause. Such reanalysis has likely taken place in example 170 where the transcriber of the recorded text treats -bhl ɛ as a connective and even has it begin a new sentence. 17 Moreover, in this example the two clauses connected by -bhl ɛ are clearly in contrast, which favours the reanalysis of -bhl ɛ as a countering connective. 18 15 The second English translation in these examples better reflects the fact that the Godié connective looks forward. 16 Compare conjunctions like as in the sense of while in English, während in German, and tandis que in French, which can all be used in a temporal sense for connecting simultaneous events, as well as for non-temporal contrast. 17 The recording still needs to be rechecked to see whether -bhl ɛ is pronounced with more voice volume than the preceding element. If so, that would confirm its renanalysis as introducing the following clause. 18 Interestingly enough, Gratrix 1978:314 also mentions a use of the b ɛɛ particle in the Jluko dialect of Godié where it acts as what she calls a “rhetorical connective not limited to simple clauses.” 170 ʋ mʋ nä ʋ yi NH 3 go: ICP SP 1 NH 3 come: ICP ‘… it his boat comes and goes fast. - bhlɛ waa - lʋʋ, kʋ bʋä CNT 1 3 P : GEN DPF : NH 3 ASF : NH 3 be_slow: ICP However, as for theirs, it is slow …’ [greve 43–45] The instruction for interpretation for the countering connective -bhl ɛ can thus be formulated as follows: • Look for a way in which the information in the clauses before and after -bhl ɛ can be seen to be in contrast. Example 171 illustrates how the idea of simultaneity is still present in the use of -bhl ɛ as a countering connective. 171 klaa mnö sukpɔ -kʋ - mɔɔ field: DEF inside ants BE 1: CP LOC ‘In the field there were ants sp., - bhlɛ sukpɔnʋ suwa nɩ ʋʋ wäl ɩɩ CNT 1 ants: DEM sting:3 P : ICP ADD 1 NH 3: GEN matter: DEF but even though these ants were stinging them wa nɩ - wʋ mänyɩ 3 P XNEG : NHP CNT 2 mind they didnt care about it.’ [cacao 69–71]

8.2.2 The connective -w