Past tense particles Marking the different stages in the narrative

‘nɩ nyibhlëa -lef ɩɩn ɔ yia waa f ɩɩn ADD 1 river: DEF : GEN totality 3 S XFUT : NH 1 empty_out altogether the whole river, he had emptied it out entirely ‘nɩ a yi - mɔɔ bhɩä ADD 1 NH 1 XFUT LOC be_finished and it =the water in was finished lit. it ended there. kokloko ŋnʋkla yi kʋ yi ID old_woman: DEF XFUT VPC appear The old woman appeared ɔ -kä a ɔɔ kazɔɔ 3 S have PST 2 3 S : GEN raffia_washcloth: DEF She had his raffia washcloth. ‘nɩ wlä ɔ yi kazɔɔ kʋ bhlü [sese] ADD 1 EVD 3 S XFUT raffia_washcloth: DEF VPC take NUPT Then it is said that he took his raffia washcloth.’ [kazo 50–56]

9.2.3 Past tense particles

The past tense particles bhä ‘PST1’ and wä ‘PST3’ are also used at transition points between different phases of the mental scheme of a Godié narrative. 9 The past tense particle bhä ‘PST1’ is found both at the beginning of the narrative and at its end. In example 208a bhä is present in the clause describing the initial phase of the story, and in 208b it appears in the transition clause to the complication phase. Example 208c illustrates the use of bhä in the dénouement and 208d in the final phase of the narrative. 10 208 a. - bhɔɔdä nä kä g wɛ -yä nyɩkpɔ sɔ -kʋʋ bhä kʋ beginning SP 1 ASF chimpanzee ADD 2 person two BE 1: APL PST 1 VPC ‘… in the beginning the chimpanzee and man lived together.’ [gwebhutu 12] b. - zёküü ylʋʋ - ʋ plöö- bhlä nä adjacent_day: GEN day: DEF which BE 2: CP PST 1: LOP SP ‘Now yesterday lit. the one day from now that passed, ʋmʋ kʋ nä wälɩklё -bhlogbe -bhlü bhä it: TH on SP matter_part one_single fall: CP PST 1 that day lit. on it something happened.’ [greve 15–17] c. nɩ ɔ yi monie kʋ bhlü [-kpazebhleku] ADD 1 3 S XFUT money: DEF VPC take NUPT ‘… he then took the money ‘nɩ ɔ -nyɛ sɔ yi bhä yi aa [-kpazebhleku] ADD 1 3 S ADD 2: NH 2 two XFUT PST 1 come EXCL 3 NUPT and went away lit. came with it.’ [kokoleko 174–175] 9 See Marchese 1978 for these uses of the tense particles. 10 Note the yi clauses see §9.1.2 in examples 213 and 213, which both express the outcome of the story. d. nɩ wlä Goplë yi bhä kʋ -bha [-kpazebhleku] ADD 1 EVD Gopleu XFUT PST 1 VPC leave NUPT ‘Then Gopleu got up nɩ ɔ yi bhä mʋ a [-kpazebhleku] ADD 1 3 S XFUT PST 1 go EXCL 3 NUPT and he went away.’ [sigo 436–437] In the coda of a narrative the past tense particle wä ‘PST3’ occurs with the completive aspect, as in example 209. 209 nünëa sä Sigo - nʋ wä nä ɔ -nʋ Goplë [-kpazebhleku] folk_tale: DEF way Sigo do: CP PST 3 SP 1 3 S do: CP Gopleu NUPT ‘The story about how Sigo acted towards Gopleu nɩ Goplë -mä a - nʋɔ wä nä [-kpazebhleku] ADD 1 Gopleu ADD 4 NH 1 do:3s:cp PST 3 SP 1 NUPT and Gopleu, how he had dealt with him …’ [sigo 438–440] In example 210 the tense particle wä is used in the last clause of the complication phase of the narrative. What follows is the reaction of the villagers to the woman’s unintentional killing of her child in the bush. Note the temporal point of departure see §9.2.1 at the transition point to the reaction phase of the story. 210 nɩ wlä ŋnɔnɔ yi wä a [sese] ADD 1 EVD woman: DEM come PST 3 DP 4 NUPT ‘And that woman was coming nɩ ɔ ŋʋ wä yunɔ sä a [sese] ADD 1 3 S PUT PST 3 child: DEM VPC DP 4 NUPT and she put that child down. zeli yä yɩ ze [sese] daylight XPER now light_up NUPT When day broke the next morning…’ [lueuzi 68–70]

9.2.4 The perfect aspect and ideophones