The introduction of identifiable participants

1. Clause with predicate focus A clause with predicate focus is used to introduce a brand new participant with only a local minor role in the narrative, as in example 110 above. 2. PoD followed by a clause with predicate focus A point of departure, followed by a clause with predicate focus is used to introduce a brand new participant playing a local key role in the narrative, as in example 111. 111 n yɩkpɔ -bhlogbe ɔ -nʋ sää ɔɔ gɔlʋlɛɛ person one_single 3 S make: CP DP 1 3 S : GEN canoe: DIM : DEF ‘… a certain man, he took lit. made his small canoe …’ [greve 25] 3. PoD followed by a clause with global focus A point of departure followed by a clause with global focus is used to introduce a brand new participant who will be the protagonist, as in examples 112a and 112b. 112 a. - lɔɔ klää mnɛ - kʋ - mɔɔ ɛɛ - wʋ ghlü there forest: OBL animal BE 1: CP LOC NH 2: XNEG CNT 2 be_big ‘There in the forest, there is an animal. It is not big.’ [creation 27–28] b. nyibhlëa- - kʋ lä - lɔɔ nä kuŋnʋklä - kʋ -mɔɔ river: DEF : REL BE 1: CP LOP there SP 1 ghost_old_woman BE 1 LOC ‘That river lit. the river that was there, an old woman’s ghost was in there. amä plöö- lä nyibhlëa mnö -zlëë NH 1: TH BE 2: CP LOP river: DEF inside spirit She lit. it was her who was the river spirit.’ [kazo 7–8] 4. An event-reporting clause An event-reporting clause—that is, a clause with grammatical subject-predicate structure and a pragmatic global focus structure see §4.1.3—is also typically used to bring a brand new major participant on stage, as in example 113. The verb of the clause is then generally some verb of movement, such as go, come, appear, or pass. The incompletive aspect of the verb seems to be characteristic of the event-reporting clause in this particular function. 113 - zɩkää ylʋʋ kʋ nä ŋwadi mʋ ylä today: GEN day: DEF on SP 1 lad go: ICP now: LOP ‘Now one day lit. on the day of today a lad was coming along, ɔ bhɛɛ ɔɔ kazɔ 3 S hold: ICP 3 S : GEN raffia_washcloth he had with him lit. was holding his raffia washcloth.’ [kazo 15–17]

5.1.2 The introduction of identifiable participants

If the narrator assumes that the hearer already has a mental representation of the participant, this participant is considered an identifiable referent for the hearer. Similarly to the introduction of brand new participants see §5.1.1, the information structure of the clause in which identifiable referents are introduced gives the hearer a cue as to their role in the narrative as either the major participant the protagonist or a minor particpant with a local role. 5.1.2.1 The introduction of identifiable major participants Identifiable major participants, especially if they are referred to by a proper name, are brought on stage by a clause with global focus of the event-reporting type, preceded by a point of departure. This structure is also one of the structures used to introduce a brand new participant, as shown in the preceding section. Compare the first clause of the sentence in example 114 with example 113 above to that effect. 114 - zɩkä Goplë plö -aaa nɩ a yi - mɔɔ jinëëdë mʋ today Gopleu pass: ICP until ADD 1 NH 1 XFUT LOC sea:middle go ‘One day, Gopleu was flying until he lit. it came to the middle of the sea.’ [sigo 43–44] 5.1.2.2 Introducing identifiable minor participants Identifiable minor participants are brought on stage in a clause with predicate focus. As for the noun phrase that introduces them, the following structures have been found to occur: 5. Simple indefinite noun phrase An identifiable minor participant, especially an inanimate one, is introduced with a simple indefinite noun phrase, as shown with “things” and “slaves” in example 115. 115 ɔ -kä a lɩ nɩ ɔ -kä a - gänʋnyʋä 3 S have PST 2 thing: PL ADD 1 3 S have PST 2 slavery_do: AF : PL ‘He had riches and he had slaves.’ [filsprod 5–6] 6. Definite noun phrase If the identifiable minor participant is accessible through other information—whether given earlier in the narrative, through inference, or through encyclopedic knowledge—it is introduced with a definite noun phrase, sometimes also accompanied by a relative clause, as in 116c. 116 a. dunyʋa lä ɔ village_people: DEF say EXCL 2 ‘The village people said, “Oh …”’ [lueuzi 64] b. ɔɔ - wʋ -bʋä -mä kɔ -mö komisäliaa 3 S : XNEG CNT 2 be_slow: CP ADD 4 ASF :3 S go: CP police_station: OBL ‘he wasn’t slow to act but went to the police station nɩ ɔ yi sʋjaa soo ADD 1 3 S XFUT police: DEF speak and told the police’ [neyo 32.2–32.3] c. minislöɔ wa laa lä Bonbee nä ɔ -yi - mɔɔ minister: DEF 3 P call: ICP LOP Bombet SP 1 3 S come: CP LOC ‘The minister called Bombet, he came there, nɩ Ganaa abasadɛlɩɔ -yi sɩɩ ADD 1 Ghana: GEN ambassador: DEF come: CP ADD 3 and the ambassador of Ghana came, too.’ [neyo 71.1–3] 7. Left-dislocated definite noun phrase, followed by a clause with global focus An identifiable minor participant may also be introduced with a left-dislocated definite noun phrase as a point of departure, preceding a clause with global focus, as in example 117. This encoding appears to convey that even though the participant is a minor participant, he plays a local key role. 117 pɛlɩɔ -mä ɔ -kʋ bhä s ɩɩ lɔɔ priest: DEF ADD 4 3 S BE 1: CP PST 1 ADD 3 there ‘Now the priest, he was also there.’ [neyo 51]

5.1.3 The introduction of the very first participant