The History Department of Sanata Dharma University

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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter is divided into two parts. They are theoretical description which discusses the theories that are relevant to the research and theoretical framework which discussed the adaptation of the research method and the instructional design method that are used in the research.

A. Theoretical Description

This section consists of some theories that support this research, namely review of related studies, the theory of instructional design, the theory of reading, the theory of grammar and reading, the theory of vocabulary and reading, the theory of writing and the theory of content-based instruction.

1. Instructional Design

In this research, the researcher adapted the design model from Kemp, Morrison, Ross and Kalman 2011 in designing the materials since the goal of the instructional design is “to design and develop instruction that will improve performance in a most effective and efficient manner” p. 3. According to Kemp et al 2011, there are four fundamental components of instructional design, namely l earners‟ characteristics, objectives, instructional strategies, and evaluation. These components are interrelated and could conceivably make up an entire instructional design plan. Further, Kemp et al 2011 state the systematic design process which consists of nine elements 10 arranged in a circular manner in a form of an oval shape. The elements are instructional problems, learner and context, task analysis, instructional objectives, content sequencing, instructional strategies, designing the message, developments of the instruction, and evaluation instruments. The first step is instructional problems in which the designer identifies the need of the participants or the problem they wish to solve. The purpose for identifying the problem is to determine whether instruction should be part of the solution. Needs assessment, goal analysis and performance assessment take function as the tools to identify the problem. Next, in learner and context, defining the characteristics of the target audience becomes the main analysis of this step. There are three categories of learner characteristics, they are general characteristics gender, age, education, and ethnicity, specific entry characteristics prerequisite skills for the instruction and learning styles preferred ways of learning. Information of those categories can be obtained through observation, interviews, and questionnaires. It can help the designer to gather data and information about the learners‟ reading and writing level, general background knowledge, assumptions or work experience. Task analysis is one of the most important steps in instructional design since the process is used to determine what knowledge and procedures the designer needs to include in the instruction to help the learner master the objectives. There are three techniques for analyzing knowledge and tasks namely topic analysis, procedural analysis and critical incident method. Topic analysis is used to analyze tasks to identify the facts, concepts, principles needed for the