23 These principles of teaching grammar will be implemented in designing
the materials as a part of reading skill improvement since the History Department emphasizes that grammar and vocabulary learning are necessary to support
reading.
4. Theories of Vocabulary and Reading
According to Nunan 1999, p. 101, vocabulary is a list of target language words. Similarly, Lehr, Osborn and Hiebert note that vocabulary is the knowledge
of meaning of words in both oral and print language and in productive and receptive forms as cited in Kamil Hiebert, 2005, p. 2.
In relation to reading, Parry 1991, p. 650 conducted a research with ESL students in which the result indicates that teachers should encourage the students
in the classes to do rapid reading without spending too much time on each word as cited in Johnson Steele, 1996, p. 3. This view is supported by Irvin 1990,
“Wide reading should be the primary vehicle for vocabulary learning, yet some selected words can be the focus of direct instruction o
r study” p. 12. In fact, for English language learners, Eskey and Grabe 1988, p. 232 have suggested,
“Words seem to have a status in language akin to that of molecules in physical structures, and good readers become remarkably adept at recognizing thousands of
them at a glance” as cited in Farrell, 2009, p. 9. These statements prove that reading plays an important role in enriching the students‟ vocabulary since it
supports the learners to a better comprehension of reading contexts.
24
a. Theory of Vocabulary Learning
A large vocabulary is essential for English language learners, not only for reading purposes but also for all other related language skills such as speaking and
writing Farrell, 2009, p. 9. As cited in Schmitt and Schmitt 2005, p. vii, research indicates that learners need to have access to a minimum 3000 words in
order to even begin to comprehend authentic texts Laufer, 1992. In addition, research on native speakers indicates that second language learners in the same
school system as native speakers of English may have to increase their vocabulary by around 1000 words a year, besides making up a 2000- to 3000- word gap, in
order to match native speakers‟ vocabulary growth Nation, 1990, p. 24. Johnson and Steel 1996 states that many ESL learners have developed
the habit of word-by-word reading, feeling the need to stop and look up, or even translate into their native language, most unknown words they encounter p. 3.
However, Aebersold and Field 1997, p. 139 suggest: Teachers consider the time sequence of a lesson that focuses on
vocabulary building once the text has been selected by deciding on the vocabulary to teach before reading the text, during reading and after
reading the text. When considering what words to read before reading, they suggest teacher first consider what words the students already know,
what words they need to know to comprehend the text and what words
they will need to know to „function in L2FL in the future. Nation 1990 mentions there are two types of vocabulary learning namely
direct and indirect vocabulary learning. p. 2. In direct vocabulary learning, the learners do exercises and activities that focus their attention on vocabulary such as
word-building exercises, guessing words from context, learning words in lists, and vocabulary games. In indirect vocabulary learning, the learners‟ attention is
