Instructional Design Theoretical Description
10 arranged in a circular manner in a form of an oval shape. The elements are
instructional problems, learner and context, task analysis, instructional objectives, content sequencing, instructional strategies, designing the message, developments
of the instruction, and evaluation instruments. The first step is instructional problems in which the designer identifies the
need of the participants or the problem they wish to solve. The purpose for identifying the problem is to determine whether instruction should be part of the
solution. Needs assessment, goal analysis and performance assessment take function as the tools to identify the problem.
Next, in learner and context, defining the characteristics of the target audience becomes the main analysis of this step. There are three categories of
learner characteristics, they are general characteristics gender, age, education, and ethnicity, specific entry characteristics prerequisite skills for the instruction
and learning styles preferred ways of learning. Information of those categories can be obtained through observation, interviews, and questionnaires. It can help
the designer to gather data and information about the learners‟ reading and writing level, general background knowledge, assumptions or work experience.
Task analysis is one of the most important steps in instructional design since the process is used to determine what knowledge and procedures the
designer needs to include in the instruction to help the learner master the objectives. There are three techniques for analyzing knowledge and tasks namely
topic analysis, procedural analysis and critical incident method. Topic analysis is used to analyze tasks to identify the facts, concepts, principles needed for the
11 instruction and the procedures. Whereas procedural analysis is used to analyze
tasks by identifying the steps required to complete them. The last analysis, critical incident method is useful for analyzing the interpersonal skills.
The fourth step is instructional objectives. It concerns on what the learner must master. The objectives provide a map for designing the instruction and also
identify information necessary to solve the performance problem. As a development tool, the objectives are classified into three domains: cognitive,
psychomotor, and affective. The fifth step is content sequencing in which the designer has to put the
content in a logical sequence in order to help the learner grasp the ideas in a more efficient and effective manner. The order in which the information is presented
plays an important role in helping the learner understand and learn the information so as to achieve the objectives. The materials should be presented systematically
start from the simplest task to the more complex task. The sixth step is instructional strategies which focuses on designing
creative and innovative ways of presenting the materials that help the learner understand the materials better. The process involves numerous approaches
ranging from a simple analogy to a complex simulation. It starts from determining the content and performance type of each objective. The instructional strategies
are classified into six categories: facts, concepts, principles and rules, procedures, interpersonal skills, and attitudes.
Then, the next step is designing the message. The design of the message is the specific and deliberate process used to arrange the words and pictures to make
12 a communicative design. Signal words such as “Read the text below…” and the
use of typographical elements such as bold, italics, or a change in type size can bridge communication between the designer and the learners. It can also further
enhance the readability and the learner‟s understanding of the instruction. After completing the analysis and the design, the next step is development
of instruction which involves putting all the parts together to produce instructional materials in forms of video recordings, Web pages, print materials or audiotapes.
The ninth step is evaluation instruments. This step is used to assess the learner‟s mastery of the objectives. The assessment can be in form of multiple-
choice test items, truefalse items, matching items, short-answer items, essay questions, problem-solving items or even producing a portfolio. This step is also
conducted to evaluate the designed materials whether it is suitable and able to fulfill the learner‟s needs. Depending on the stage of the instructional design
process, one of three types of evaluation can be considered: the formative, summative or confirmative evaluation.
These nine elements are the basic components of the design process. Kemp et al 2011 note that the elements are presented in an oval shape to indicate that
there is no one specific sequence or order to completing the steps p. 17. It should be noted that the History Department students are in the beginner
level of English, thus the researcher also considers the input hypothesis proposed by Krashen 1982. The input hypothesis allows the students to move from the
current competence represented by i to the next level by applying i + 1. The input hypothesis claim that a necessary but not sufficient condition to move
13 from stage i to stage i + 1 is that acquirer understand input that contains i + 1,
where “understand” means that the acquirer is focused on the meaning Krashen, 1982, p. 21. This term is later known as the comprehensible input. Krashen
1982 adds that the students are able to acquire by understanding language that contains structure a bit beyond their current level of competence with the help of
context or extra-linguistic information p. 21.This will be helpful for the students when they are given more difficult reading texts which contain new vocabulary to
improve their reading comprehension and make a progress of their English level.