37 definition is presented by Spector and Muraida 1997, who state that instructional
design is structuring of the learning environment in order to increase the learning effectiveness. On the other hand, Smith and Ragan 2005 state that instructional
design is the whole process of creating learning activities. In this case, the whole process consists of defining the learning needs and goals, developing the materials
and activities and evaluating all the of the instruction and learning activities. In addition, Elly 1996 defines the term instructional design by differentiating it into
two terms; instructional technology and educational technology. The instructional technology refers to the process of teaching and learning by using the teaching
and learning strategies while the educational technology refers to the use of technology in any aspects of the educational system.
There are many instructional design models that are based on a long process of the researches on learning processes. Each component of the model is
based on theories and researches that shows the effectiveness of the components. The models bring the concept of variety educational situations and it shows the
procedures that are used to create effective learning media. There are two instructional models that are used as the references for this study; ADDIE and
Dick and Carey model 2009. The discussion of those two models are decribed as follows.
a. ADDIE Model
ADDIE is a general purpose model, most useful for creating instructional products, but also applicable for program design. The ADDIE Model is an
iteractive instructional design process, where the results of the formative PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
38 evaluation of each phase may lead the instructional designer back to any previous
phase. The end product of one phase is the starting product of the next phase. The ADDIE model consists of five steps; analysis, design, development,
implementation and evaluation Rodgers, 2002. Analysis is the phase in which the writer define and identify the problem
and determine the solution of the problem. The analysis is the stage where the writer does need analysis and determine the goals of the research in order give
input for the design. Design phase is the outline of the goals of the research. In this phase, the writer conducts a learning analysis, write objectives, select delivery
systems and sequence instruction. This is the input for the development phase. Development phase is the phase when the writer develops the instruction and
media that will be used. The purpose of this phase is to generate the lesson plans and lesson materials.
The next phase is implementation. It refers to the actual delivery of the instruction. The purpose of this phase is the effective and efficient delivery of
instruction. This phase must promote the students understanding of material, support the students mastery of objectives, and ensure the students transfer of
knowledge from the instructional setting to the job. The last phase is evaluation. This phase measures the effectiveness and efficiency of the instruction. There are
two types of evaluation, formative and summative. Formative evaluation is ongoing during and between phases. The purpose of this type of evaluation is to
improve the instruction before the final version is implemented. Summative evaluation usually occurs after the final version of instruction is implemented.
39 This type of evaluation assesses the overall effectiveness of the instruction. Data
from the Summative Evaluation is often used to make a decision about the instruction
as whether
to purchase
an instructional
package or
continuediscontinue instruction. Tomonori states that each of the steps provided in the ADDIE model are linked to one another which starts from analysis and ends
with evaluation. He adds that the revision can occur within the process; therefore the feedback is stemming from the evaluation stage. The five steps of ADDIE
model mentioned above can be seen in the following figure.
Figure 2. 5 The ADDIE Model b.
Dick and Carey Model
The Dick and Carey model is another instructional model used by writers. This model has more steps compared to the ADDIE model. The Dick and Carey
model is based on ten instructional events; identify instructional goals, conduct instructional analysis, analyze learners and contexts, write performance
objectives, develop assessment instruments, develop instructional strategy, develop and select instructional materials, design and conduct formative
40 evaluation of instruction, revise instruction, design and conduct summative
evaluation Dick and Carey, 2009. The first step is identifying instructional goals. In this step, the writer determines new information skill that is going to be
developed. The instructional goals might be taken from needs assessment, performance analysis, etc. The second step is conducting instructional analysis. In
this step, the writer determines the action on performing the goal and look at the skills needed to complete the goal. The final step of this phase is to determine the
skills, knowledge and attitude needed by learners in the new instruction. The third step is analyzing learners and contexts. In order to analyze the instructional goal,
there is an analysis of the context to learn the skill ad context to be used. The learners‟ skills, preferences and attitude are determined with the characteristics of
the instructional setting and the setting that is going to be used. The fourth step is writing performance objectives. In this step, the writers write the statements of the
learners‟ expected skill when they complete the instruction. The fifth step is developing assessment instruments. These instruments are written based on the
written objectives and they are aimed to measure the learners‟ ability to perform what the writers have described in the objectives.
The sixth step is developing instructional strategy. This instructional strategy is identified based on the information from the preceding five steps which
is aimed to achieve the goal. The strategy is emphasized on the components to improve the students‟ learning. This strategy is based on the theories of learning,
learning research, characteristics of the media, content of teaching materials and the characteristics of learners in which it is useful in developing and selecting
41 materials and plan instructional activities. The seventh step is developing and
selecting instructional materials. In this step, the instructional strategy is used to produce the instruction. Guidance for learners, instructional materials and
assessments are included. In developing original materials depends on the types of learning outcomes, the availability of existing relevant materials and
developmental resources available to the writers. The eighth step is designing and conducting formative evaluation of instruction. After the designer completes the
draft of the instruction; it is necessary to conduct a series of evaluation in order to collect data used to identify problems with the instruction for opportunities to
improve the instruction. This is evaluation is called formative evaluation because it is aimed to help writers in creating and improving instructional processes and
products. There are three types of formative evaluation; one-to-one evaluation, small-group evaluation and field trial evaluation. Each type provides the designer
with different set of information which is useful for improving the instruction. The ninth step is revising instruction. Revising the instruction is the ninth step in
design and development process. In this step, the learners‟ difficulties in
achieving the objective are identified by summarizing and interpreting data from the formative evaluation. This data is also used to relate the
learner‟s difficulties to specific deficiencies in the instruction. However, the data from the formative
evaluation are not simply used to revise the instruction; they are used to reexamine the validity of the instructional analysis and the assumptions of
learners‟ skills and characteristics. All of the considerations of the revised instructional strategy are incorporated into instructional revision in order to create
42 more effective learning experience. Revision is an ongoing process in design and
development process in order to reassess assumptions and decisions. Therefore, a writer can do the revisions without waiting the design and development processes
are completed. The last step is designing and conducting summative evaluation. Summative evaluation is an evaluation of the value of instruction which occurs
after the instruction has been evaluated formatively and sufficiently to meet the designer‟s standard. This summative evaluation is not considered as an integral
part of the instruction design process because it is conducted by an independent evaluator. The ten steps of Dick and Carey model is illustrated by the figure
below.
Figure 2.6 The Dick and Carey Model Dick and Carey 2009
Since this study is focused on designing learning media sotware, it is important for the developer to understand both the instructional design and the
characterisics of well-designed software. There are some characteristics of well- designed software proposed by Egbert and Hanson-Smith 1999. The first
characteristic is consistency. In this case, consistency refers to the ability to create the elements of the software screen such as color, layout, fonts etc are consistent
43 from one part of the software is consistent. This consistency of the software will
minimize the users in accessing the software. The second characteristic is the good use of space. It means that the developer should be able to put sufficient
information on each screen. The complicated contents in a screen will distract the users while they are accessing the software. The third characteristic is legibility.
The legibility is related to the text used in the software. It is neccessary to consider the font size and also how the fonts are presented on the screen. The
fourth characteristic is easy of navigation and recovery. It means that the software should provide clear instructions in order to minimize errors while the users are
using the software. In adition, the last characteristic is high-quality playback. It means that the software should provide clear audio or video for the users so that
they can recognize the sound clearly. Those characteristics are important to consider because they can help the developer create an accessible software for
more effective learning.
5. English for Senior High School
