The analysis of word-formation of English Slang in The Inbetweeners Television Series.

ABSTRACT

Jati, Elizabeth Ratri Dian. 2015. The Analysis of Word-Formation of English Slang in The Inbetweeners Television Series. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

English learners must have knowledge on the English variation to help them communicate according to the context and the interlocutors. However, the schools only provide standard English materials. They do not provide the supporting materials about non-standard variation like slang, because it is regarded as low variation. On the other hand, slang is important to study as a part of language and social communication. It is found in the native speakers’ daily conversation and films dialogue. The study on slang helps the learners to have an understanding on slang and its application.

In this study, the writer analyzed the word-formation process that was used to form English slang in The Inbetweeners television series. The aim of the study was to answer two research questions. First question is “what types of word-formation are used to form English slang in The Inbetweeners television series?” The second one is “what is the distribution of the word-formation of English slang found in The Inbetweeners television series?” The writer used the word-formation theories from Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) also O’Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, & Rees-Miller (2010), namely: coined word, clipping, blending, proper noun, borrowing, internal change, suppletions, reduplication, cliticization, onomatopoeia, change in the part of speech, metaphorical extension, broadening, semantics drift, reversal, compounding, affixation, inflection, back-formation, acronym, abbreviation, generified-word, narrowing, and tone placement to answer those research questions,. Besides, the theory stated by Dumas and Lighter (1978) was used to identify slang.

The writer employed four steps of document analysis by Cresswell (1998) to analyze the data, namely: organizing the data, examining the data, classifying and analyzing the data, and making the conclusion according to the finding. The data were taken from the first season of The Inbetweeners television series.

Slang in The Inbetweeners was formed by coined word, clipping, blending, proper noun, borrowing indirect, internal change, suppletions, reduplication, cliticization, onomatopoeia, change in the part of speech, metaphorical extension, broadening, semantics drift, reversal, compounding, affixation, inflection, and back-formation. Moreover, the writer found compounding is the most frequent word-formation process used in slang in The Inbetweeners. Meanwhile, acronym, alphabetical abbreviation, generified word, and narrowing were not found.

ABSTRAK

Jati, Elizabeth Ratri Dian. 2015. The Analysis of Word-Formation of English Slang in The Inbetweeners Television Series. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma

Para pembelajar bahasa Inggris harus memiliki pengetahuan tentang ragam bahasa Inggris supaya bisa membantu mereka berkomunikasi berdasarkan lawan bicara dan sesuai dengan konteks. Tetapi, sekolah hanya menyediakan materi tentang bahasa Inggris formal. Sekolah tidak memberikan materi pendukung tentang ragam informal, contohnya bahasa gaul, karena bahasa gaul dianggap sebagai ragam bahasa rendahan . Di sisi lain, bahasa gaul sangat penting untuk dipelajari karena itu adalah bagian dari bahasa dan komunikasi sosial. Ragam bahasa gaul bisa ditemukan di percakapn sehari-hari atau dialog film. Penelitian tentang slang membantu para pembelajar untuk memahami bahasa gaul dan cara pemakaiannya.

Dalam penelitian ini, penulis menganalisa proses pembentukan kata yang dipakai untuk membentuk kata-kata bahasa gaul. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah menjawab rumusan masalah “Apa jenis proses pembentukan kata yang dipakai untuk membentuk bahasa gaul dalam serial The Inbetweeners?” dan “Bagaimana proses distribusi pembentukan kata yang ditemukan dalam serial The

Inbetweeners?” Penulis menggunakan teori pembentukan kata dari Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, dan Harnish (2010) serta O’Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, dan Rees-Miller (2010) untuk menjawab dua pertanyaan tersebut. Proses-proses yang digunakan adalah penciptaan kata, pemenggalan kata, kombinasi proses, eponim, penyerapan kata, perubahan internal, perubahan kata, reduplikasi, klitik, onomatope, transposisi, analogi, perluasan makna, semantic drift, perubahan makna, pembentukan kata gabungan, afiksasi, infleksi, derivasi balik, akronim, singkatan, generified word, penyempitan makna, dan, penempatan bunyi,. Selain itu, teori dari Dumas dan Lighter (1978) juga digunakan untuk mengidentifikasi bahasa gaul.

Penulis menggunakan empat proses analisa dokumen dari Cresswell (1998) untuk menganalisa data, yaitu: pengumpulan data, pengkajian data, pengklasifikasian dan penganalisaan data, dan penyajian data. Data-data tersebut diperoleh dari transkrip serial The Inbetweeners sesi pertama.

Proses-proses yang ditemukan untuk membentuk kata gaul dalam serial itu, adalah: penciptaan kata, pemenggalan kata, kombinasi proses, eponym, penyerapan kata, perubahan internal, perubahan kata, reduplikasi, klitik, onomatope, transposisi, analogi, perluasan makna, semantic drift, perubahan makna, pembentukan kata gabungan, afiksasi, infleksi, dan derivasi balik. Proses yang paling sering ditemukan adalah pembentukan kata gabungan. Sedangkan yang tidak ditemukan adalah akronim, singkatan, generified word, dan penyempitan makna.

OF ENGLISH SLANG

IN THE INBETWEENERS TELEVISION SERIES

A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS

Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the SarjanaPendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

By

Elizabeth Ratri Dian Jati 101214133

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTEMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION

FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA 2015

i

THE ANALYSIS OF WORD-FORMATION

OF ENGLISH SLANG

IN THE INBETWEENERS TELEVISION SERIES

A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS

Presented as a Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the SarjanaPendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

By

Elizabeth Ratri Dian Jati 101214133

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTEMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION

FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA 2015

v

“Bersyukurlah pada yang Maha Kuasa Hargailah orang-orang yang menyayangimu dan selalu ada setia di sisimu”

(Gigi –Sang Pemimpi)

Untuk kalian, orang-orang kuat, sabar, setia, dan tidak pernah pergi ketika waktu-waktu yang sulit

vi ABSTRACT

vii

Jati, Elizabeth Ratri Dian. 2015. The Analysis of Word-Formation of English Slang in The Inbetweeners Television Series. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

English learners must have knowledge on the English variation to help them communicate according to the context and the interlocutors. However, the schools only provide standard English materials. They do not provide the supporting materials about non-standard variation like slang, because it is regarded as low variation. On the other hand, slang is important to study as a part of language and social communication. It is found in the native speakers‟ daily conversation and films dialogue. The study on slang helps the learners to have an understanding on slang and its application.

In this study, the writer analyzed the word-formation process that was used to form English slang in The Inbetweeners television series. The aim of the study was to answer two research questions. First question is “what types of word-formation are used to form English slang in The Inbetweeners television series?” The second one is “what is the distribution of the word-formation of English slang found in The Inbetweeners television series?” The writer used the word-formation theories from Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) also O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, & Rees-Miller (2010), namely: coined word, clipping, blending, proper noun, borrowing, internal change, suppletions, reduplication, cliticization, onomatopoeia, change in the part of speech, metaphorical extension, broadening, semantics drift, reversal, compounding, affixation, inflection, back-formation, acronym, abbreviation, generified-word, narrowing, and tone placement to answer those research questions,. Besides, the theory stated by Dumas and Lighter (1978) was used to identify slang.

The writer employed four steps of document analysis by Cresswell (1998) to analyze the data, namely: organizing the data, examining the data, classifying and analyzing the data, and making the conclusion according to the finding. The data were taken from the first season of The Inbetweeners television series.

Slang in The Inbetweeners was formed by coined word, clipping, blending, proper noun, borrowing indirect, internal change, suppletions, reduplication, cliticization, onomatopoeia, change in the part of speech, metaphorical extension, broadening, semantics drift, reversal, compounding, affixation, inflection, and back-formation. Moreover, the writer found compounding is the most frequent word-formation process used in slang in The Inbetweeners. Meanwhile, acronym, alphabetical abbreviation, generified word, and narrowing were not found.

viii

ABSTRAK

Jati, Elizabeth Ratri Dian. 2015. The Analysis of Word-Formation of English Slang in The Inbetweeners Television Series. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma

Para pembelajar bahasa Inggris harus memiliki pengetahuan tentang ragam bahasa Inggris supaya bisa membantu mereka berkomunikasi berdasarkan lawan bicara dan sesuai dengan konteks. Tetapi, sekolah hanya menyediakan materi tentang bahasa Inggris formal. Sekolah tidak memberikan materi pendukung tentang ragam informal, contohnya bahasa gaul, karena bahasa gaul dianggap sebagai ragam bahasa rendahan . Di sisi lain, bahasa gaul sangat penting untuk dipelajari karena itu adalah bagian dari bahasa dan komunikasi sosial. Ragam bahasa gaul bisa ditemukan di percakapn sehari-hari atau dialog film. Penelitian tentang slang membantu para pembelajar untuk memahami bahasa gaul dan cara pemakaiannya.

Dalam penelitian ini, penulis menganalisa proses pembentukan kata yang dipakai untuk membentuk kata-kata bahasa gaul. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah menjawab rumusan masalah “Apa jenis proses pembentukan kata yang dipakai untuk membentuk bahasa gaul dalam serial The Inbetweeners?” dan “Bagaimana proses distribusi pembentukan kata yang ditemukan dalam serial The Inbetweeners?” Penulis menggunakan teori pembentukan kata dari Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, dan Harnish (2010) serta O’Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, dan Rees-Miller (2010) untuk menjawab dua pertanyaan tersebut. Proses-proses yang digunakan adalah penciptaan kata, pemenggalan kata, kombinasi proses, eponim, penyerapan kata, perubahan internal, perubahan kata, reduplikasi, klitik, onomatope, transposisi, analogi, perluasan makna, semantic drift, perubahan makna, pembentukan kata gabungan, afiksasi, infleksi, derivasi balik, akronim, singkatan, generified word, penyempitan makna, dan, penempatan bunyi,. Selain itu, teori dari Dumas dan Lighter (1978) juga digunakan untuk mengidentifikasi bahasa gaul.

Penulis menggunakan empat proses analisa dokumen dari Cresswell (1998) untuk menganalisa data, yaitu: pengumpulan data, pengkajian data, pengklasifikasian dan penganalisaan data, dan penyajian data. Data-data tersebut diperoleh dari transkrip serial The Inbetweeners sesi pertama.

Proses-proses yang ditemukan untuk membentuk kata gaul dalam serial itu, adalah: penciptaan kata, pemenggalan kata, kombinasi proses, eponym, penyerapan kata, perubahan internal, perubahan kata, reduplikasi, klitik, onomatope, transposisi, analogi, perluasan makna, semantic drift, perubahan makna, pembentukan kata gabungan, afiksasi, infleksi, dan derivasi balik. Proses yang paling sering ditemukan adalah pembentukan kata gabungan. Sedangkan yang tidak ditemukan adalah akronim, singkatan, generified word, dan penyempitan makna.

ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I give my gratitude to Jesus Christ for His eternal love that always keep and protect me and to Mother Mary with Her immense power in The Three Hail Mary Novena. I am also grateful because I have chance to have a beautiful life and feel love from my best parents ever, Antonius W. Topo Aji and Maria M. Lies Supriyantini, who are always faithful to encourage me. I also thank my brothers Mas Enggar and Dik Bayong for their support.

I am highly indebted to F. X. Ouda Teda Ena, S.Pd, M.Pd, Ed.D for his guidance and patience to help me finish this thesis. He is never bored to review my thesis and remind me to finish my thesis. I thank Mas Simon Arsa Manggala, S.S and Mas Paskalis Damar Aji Kurnis, S.Pd., as well, for their kindness to give their spare time to proofread my work and for the discussion that enlightened my mind. I also thank Bayu Pamungkas, S.Pd. for reviewing my work.

I thank all instructors of ILCIC LISDU: Mbak Ira, Mbak Tiara, Mbak Kitin, Mbak Aning, and Mbak Esti for the support. I also thank Rio and Vena, who are in the same boat, for the consolation and the laughter.

My gratitude goes to Christophorus Estu N. Jati for knowing my situation when I am under pressure and his effort to make me smile. I also thank Christa Yona T. and Agatha Dwi Ira D. for colorful friendship. My gratitude also goes to Christina Dea, Veni, Nutnut, and Yos, who helped and encouraged me to finish my thesis and

x

all members of PBI C 2010 who make me feel happy to stay and study in this beautiful place.

Yogyakarta, January 22, 2015

xi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TITLE PAGE ……….……….. i

APPROVAL PAGES ……….………... ii

STATEMENT OF WORK‟S ORIGINALITY ………..………... iv

DEDICATION PAGE ………... v

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ……….. vi

ABSTRACT ………... vii

ABSTRAK ………..………... viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………... ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS ………..……… xi

LIST OF TABLES……….………. xvi

LIST OF APPENDICES ………... xviii

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION A. Background of the Study…..……….. 1

B. Research Problems………..………..………… 4

C. Problem Limitation………..…………... 5

D. Research Objectives……….…………..…………... 5

E. Research Benefits………..………. 5

xii

CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A. Theoretical Description …..…………..…………..…………..…. 8

1. Sociolinguistics…………..…………..…………..…………... 8

2. Language Variation…………..……….……..…………. 10

3. Language Change …………..…………..…………..……….. 13

4. Slang …………..…………..…………..…………..………… 18

5. Rhyming Slang ……..…………..……….. 34

6. Specific and General Slang……..…………..……… 34

7. Morphology ……..…………..……… 35

a. Creating New Words (Neologism)……… 37

1) Coined Words …..…………..………..……… 37

2) Acronyms …..…………..………. 37

3) Alphabetic Abbreviation…..…………..……… 38

4) Clippings …..…………..………..……… 38

5) Blends …..…………..……… 40

6) Generified words.…………..……… 40

7) Proper Nouns .…………..………. 41

8) Borrowing .…………..………. 41

9) Internal change .…………..………..………… 42

10) Suppletion .…………..……….. 42

11) Reduplication .…………..………. 42

12) Tone Placement .…………..……….. 44

13) Cliticization .…………..……… 45

xiii

15) Onomatopoeia …………..……….. 48

b. Changing the Meaning of the Words ………. 48

1) Change in the Part of Speech……….. 48

2) Metaphorical Extension……….. 49

3) Broadening ………. 50

4) Narrowing………... 51

5) Semantic Drift ……… 51

6) Reversal ………. 52

c. Derivational Morphology ………. 52

1) Compounds and Compounding ………. 52

2) Affixation ………. 54

d. Inflectional Morphology ………...……… 70

B. Theoretical Framework ……….. 71

CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY A.Research Method……… 73

B.Research Subjects……….. 74

C.Instuments and Data Gathering Technique ……….. 76

D.Data Analysis Technique ……….. 80

E.Research Procedures……….. 85

CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION A. Word-Formation Processes are Used to Form English Slang in The Inbetweeners……… 88

xiv

2. Clipping……… 91

3. Blends………... 93

4. Proper Noun ……… 94

5. Borrowing ……… 96

6. Internal Change ……… 98

7. Suppletion ……….. 99

8. Reduplicative ……….. 100

9. Cliticization ………. 101

10.Back-Formation ……….. 103

11.Onomatopoeia ………. 104

12.Change the Part of Speech ………... 106

13.Metaphorical Extension ………... 107

14.Broadening ………... 111

15.Semantic Drift ……… 112

16.Reversal……… 113

17.Compounding ……….. 114

18.Affixation……… 118

19.Inflection ……… 127

B. The Distribution of Word-Formation Processes ...……… 128

1. The Most Frequent Word-Formation Process.. ……… 129

2. The Undiscovered Word-Formation Processes………...… 130

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS A. Conclusions ……… 134

xv

B. Implications ………. 135

C. Suggestions ……….. 136

REFERENCES ……….. 138

xvi

LIST OF TABLES

Tables Page

2.1: The Use and meaning of Genitive –„s………. 46

2.2: Clitics of Auxiliary Verbs ………. 47

2.3: Common Prefixes in Standard English……… 54

3.1: Blueprint of Research Instruments Table……… 78

3.2: BlueprintRecord of Slang Word-Formation Distribution ………... 79

3.3: Example of Data Organization ………...…... 82

3.4: Example of Data Classification ………...….. 83

3.5:The Example of Slang Word-Formation Distribution Recording …….... 84

4.1: Coined Word in English Slang .………...…... 90

4.2: Clipping in the Slang Word and Its Applications in Sentences ….….... 91

4.3: Blend in Slang and Its Applications ………... 93

4.4: Proper Noun in English Slang ………...…... 95

4.5: Borrowing Process in English Slang………... 97

4.6: Internal Change in Slang Word…………...…...…... 98

4.7: Suppletion in English Slang………...…...…... 99

4.8: The Example of Reduplicative Slang ………..…...…... 101

xvii

4.10: Back-Formation in Slang ………………... 103

4.11: The Example of Onomatopoeia in Slang ……… 104

4.12: Conversion in English Slang ……… 106

4.13: Metaphorical Extension in English Slang ……….. 108

4.14: Metaphorical Extension in Slang ……… 110

4.15: Broadening in English Slang ………...…………. 112

4.16: Semantic Drift in English Slang ………. 114

4.17: Reversal in English Slang ……….. 115

4.18: Endocentric Compound in Slang ………. 117

4.19: Exocentric Compounnd in English Slang ……… 120

4.20: Suffix –er in English Slang ……… 120

4.21: Suffix –y or –ie in English Slang ……… 122

4.22: Suffix –ed in English Slang……….………… 123

4.23: Suffix –o in English Slang ……….. 125

4.24: Suffix –ing in English Slang ………. 126

xviii

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix Page

1. _{English Slang Word-Formation in Season 1 Episode 1The Inbetweeners 142}

2. _{English Slang Word-Formation in Season 1 Episode 2 The}

Inbetweeners………. 146

3. _{English Slang Word-Formation in Season 1 Episode 3 The}

Inbetweeners ……… 150

4. English Slang Word-Formation in Season 1 Episode 4 The

Inbetweeners………. 152

5. _{English Slang Word-Formation in Season 1 Episode 5 The}

Inbetweeners ……… 154

6. English Slang Word-Formation in Season 1 Episode 6 The

Inbetweeners ……… 158

7. The Distribution of English Slang Word-Formation in the First Season

1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

The first chapter consists of six parts, namely: (1) research background, (2) research problems, (3) problem limitation, (4) research objectives, (5) research benefits, and (6) definition of terms. Background of the study describes the topic of this thesis, the reasons why the writer chooses the topic of this research and why this study is important. Research problems show the problems esearch questions in this study. Problem limitation presents the scope and the focus of the research related to research questions which are going to be answered by this research. The research objectives state the expected findings of the study. Research benefits present the contribution of the study for students, teachers, and other researchers. The definition of terms defines the keywords specifically used in the study.

A. Research Background

English understanding is important for people of non-English speaking countries. It is because English becomes a main language for international communication. Randolph Quirk states, now, there are about 350 million people in this world who use English as their first language or their second language (cited by Verghese, 1989, p.1). Moreover, the number of English users from non- English speaking countries becomes even more (Kachru, 1992). Therefore, possessing ability in speaking English will help the non-native English speakers to

connect themselves to the people from other nations. By using English, communication among people from other countries can be built.

Since English is used by people in a number of countries, like United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Australia, and Singapore as the first language, there are many English variations based on the geographical condition, for examples: British English, American English, and Australian English. Beside it is grouped based on the geographical matters, English varies because of the social classes. According to the social status, English is distinguished into standard and non-standard variety. Standard language represents middle-class, educated, or relatively formal speech and the non-standard form is emblematic working-class, uneducated, and highly colloquial speech (Chambers, Trudgill & Schiling, 2003). Non-standard language characteristics are just the same with slang characteristics because the users are regarded as lowly people (Coleman, 2012). Thus, it can be said that slang is a part of non-standard variety.

Slang is considered as a low prestige language. The standard English speakers have an opinion that slang is sloppy, vulgar, a non-standard English variation and the users are uneducated men who do not know how to employ the appropriate language (Coleman, 2012). It is said so because slang is against the standard variety and full of vulgarism. The use of slang is not in accordance with the standard vocabulary. The slang users choose a new vocabulary to replace a conventional word for example, the slang users might state plum to shift stupid. Besides, most of slang terms are related to the vulgar thing, such as sex and excrement.

Slang is regarded as a disgraceful language. Therefore, slang is not studied in schools. Coleman (2012) reveals slang is not a part of teaching material in a the schools by the reason it is less prestigious than standard English. Moreover, textbooks do not provide enough information about slang. Furthermore, it causes the students against the use of slang for hundred years (Alego, 2001). On the other hand, slang is important to be studied as a part of language and social communication. Moreover, slang is often captured in the film dialogue or in the native regular conversation.

The study of slang is also needed to help the students to understand slang further. Slang understanding assists learners to acquire the slang words‟ meaning, the process how standard form changes into slang, and the appropriateness of slang application. In addition, it helps the students to distinguish the standard form, English slang and its use. Therefore, slang is beneficial, especially in education field and linguistics. However, the study about slang is limited. It is evident by Alego (2001), who states that slang has been ignored by linguists and few of them discuss about slang.

Slang can be studied from the sociolinguistics aspect or the morphological

aspects. In this study, the writer chooses to analyze slang‟s word-formation

processes as the part of morphology. The writer has three reasons to choose word-formation process in slang. First, word-word-formation process is the way to form slang words. For example, slang can be formed by affixation, blending, and clipping (Mattiello, 2008). Second, word-formation is studied by pupils of English language education study program. Analyzing slang word-formation processes

make study about morphology is easier for them because slang is still a part of English. Third, studying English slang word-formation processes may lead to in-depth study related to slang in sociolinguistics.

To conduct this study the writer chooses The Inbetweeners television series. The Inbetweeners is a British situation comedy. The story is about a friendship of William McKenzie, Jay Cartwright, Neil Sutherland, and Simon Cooper. They are unpopular students of Rudge Park Comprehension School. They try to be cool and popular. The boys are obsessed to have sexual experiences with girls.

The Inbetweeners television series show a lot of cases of the use of slang. In this film, slang words are often used by the teenage characters. The case is mainly found in the William‟s, Jay‟s, Neil‟s, and Simon‟s utterances who are sixteen year old boy. It is in line with Monaghan, Goodman, and Robinson (2012) who state that the teenagers have a lot of slang vocabulary and often apply it in their speech.

B. Research Problems

In this research, the writer proposes two research questions, namely:

1. What types of word-formations are used to form English slang in The Inbetweeners television series?

2. What is the distribution of the word-formation in English Slang found in The Inbetweeners television series?

C. Problem Limitation

This study concerns to analyze the slang words that are used in the first season of The Inbetweeners television series. The writer examines slang in British English because the research object are television series using British English in its dialogue. In addition, the main focus of the discussion is the word-formation in slang. To analyze the word-formation process, the writer uses the theories of word-formation from Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) also

O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and Rees-Miller (2010).

D. Research Objectives

There are three purposes in this study. First, it describes the word-formation processes employed in British general slang in The Inbetweeners television series. Second, this study aims to discover the distribution of word-formation processes. Third, this research provides explanation related to slang. Thus, the English speakers gain their knowledge about word-formation and language variation in English. It also helps the people to use the language variation appropriately according to the context.

E. Research Benefits

This study is meant to give benefits to English learners, future researchers, and teachers. Through this research, English learners are able to enrich their knowledge about English language variation, especially slang. The students do not only study about English variation, but also learn about English word-formations

through this research. Moreover, it provides familiar material in morphology course because slang is a variation which is commonly used in the spoken informal situation and close to the real context of English speakers. Besides, Slang is also often found in the English films.

By conducting the study, hopefully, other researchers will be encouraged to explore about any aspects in English slang deeper. Thus, the study related to English slang will be enriched and renewed. Moreover, the writer hopes the study in slang‟ word-formation will develop the linguistics study in morphology and sociolinguistics branches. Thus, the sources that are related to slang are increasing and can help the future researcher to conduct the study on slang.

The writer wishes this study is beneficial for sociolinguistics teachers. The writer hopes this study can be an example for the teachers to provide an interesting teaching material, such as: movies or television series, to explain about slang because films show the application of slang in their dialogue. Thus, it may help the teachers to explain the context of the use of slang to the students as well.

F. Definition of Terms

This part is aimed to specify the terms that are used in this study. It creates the same base among the writer and the readers in order to avoid a misunderstanding.

1. English Slang

English slang is one of English variation that is usually used in the spoken situation. It is regarded as low language variation since it is against English

standard variety. Mattiello (2008) defines slang as a variant that is full of obscenity, debases the language, contains informality and ephemerality, and creates group-restrictions. That idea supports Eble‟s statement that says,“slang is an ever changing set of colloquial words and phrases that speakers use to establish or to reinforce social identity or cohessiveness within a group or with trend or fashion in society at large” (1996, p.12). Therefore, slang is considered as an impolite and a low language variation that has an intension to restrict the outsiders to enter the group. Slang is dynamic as well; it always comes and goes. Slang changes like a fashion trend. It is popularly used in the period of time then it is stopped to be used and replaced by the new one.

2. Word-Formation

Morphology is a part of linguistics which deals with the formation of words. It discusses about morphemes change into words. Once, Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, & Harnish (2010) state “morphology is subfield of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and relationships among words” (p.14). It is in line with O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff,, and Rees-Miller (2010) who define morphology as the system of categories and rules which is involved in word formation.

Word building uses numbers of word formation processes. Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) group them into derivational morphology, inflectional morphology, neologism, and meaning modification.

8 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The second chapter consists of two parts namely theoretical description and theoretical framework. The theoritical description discusses the theories which are related to this study. The content of theoretical framework is the summary and the synthesis of all theories which will help the researcher to conduct this study. This part emphasizes theories that supported the study.

A. Theoretical Description

Theoretical description provides the description of the theories which are related to the study. They are the theory of sociolinguistics, language variation, language change, slang, morphology, and word formation. Those theories support the research. They give a base for the analysis of this study.

1. Sociolinguistics

Sociolinguistics is a part of linguistics. It is a study that discusses a relation between language and society (Van Herk, 2012). The linguists study the phenomena which are caused by the relationship of language and society in sociolinguistics. The definition of sociolinguistics from Van Herk (2012) is in line with Radford, Atkinson, Britain, Clahsen, and Spencer (2009) who define sociolinguistics as a study of the relationship between language use and the

structure of society. Moreover, Coulmas (1998) supports those definitions by stating, “the primary concern of sociolinguistic scholarship is to study the correlation between language use and social structure”. Thus, sociolinguistics is a part of linguistics study that focuses on the language phenomena which are influenced by the society.

Language is affected by social backgrounds. It varies based on the geographical aspect, age, sex, gender, and social status. Sociolinguistics carries some factors like the social backgrounds of both the speakers, the relationship between the speakers and the addressee, and the context and the manner of the interaction and the addresse (Radford, Atkinson, Britain, Clahsen & Spencer, 2009). Based on Van Herk (2012), sociolinguistics studies about how language practices of one community differ from other communites. He also proposes sociolinguistics studies about the language that is formed based on status, gender, sexuality, ethnicity, language change, social relationship. Besides, it studies about relationship between different language within and across communites, how people feel about language and language diversity, and how their societies manifest those attitudes though language planning and policy, especially in the domain of education (Van Herk, 2012).

Social background causes sub-studies in sociolinguistics. A number of phenomena ,such as: regional, social dialects, politeness, minimal responses, discourse markers, language shift, language variation and change, standard language, and non-standard varieties are studied in this branch (Radford, Atkinson, Britain, Clahsen & Spencer, 2009). Since slang is a part or language

variation, it is concluded as a part of sociolinguistics study. Slang is a non-standard variation which is used in the casual speech. It is created and used widely by social group or age group that has a close relation (Fromkin , Rodman & Hyams., 2011).

2. Language Variation

Language variation deals with the way speakers and groups of speakers can differ from each other in terms of the various forms of language that they use (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010). To study language variation, linguists analyze the linguistic variables, including phonetic, phonological, lexical, syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic variable (Burton, Dechaine & Vatikiotis-Bateson, 2012). Those variables show the differences of language. They can help the linguists to identify the varieties that are used by the speakers. Language variation shows the differences of linguistics variable in the same language.

English has numbers of varieties. According to Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003), the diversity is developed when the language users are separated geographically and socially. Holmes (2001) classifies the variation into Standard English and non-standard English based on the social status. Standard English is a variation that is regarded as an official form of English. Generally, a standard language has undergone some process of regularization or codification by recording the language in dictionary (Holmes, 2001). Thus, standard language

becomes the ratified measurement of the correct grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation.

The use of standard English is found commonly in formal situation. According to Holmes (2001), standard variation serves the H function. It means that standard variation is applied as the official communication vehicle in the court (Holmes, 2001). Moreover, Holmes (2001) states that standard form is used in the news broadcast and in print also in the educational domain, such as schools and universities.

Standard language that is used as the language instruction in school is regarded as prestigious language (Holmes, 2001). The users of standard language are considered as educated men because the standard variation is acquired in educational environment. People who use this variation are remarked as highly educated and come from high social class. Therefore, standard dialect is regarded as prestigious dialect ( Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2003). The use of standard language indicates the level of social status and educational back-ground. Holmes (2001) states that people see the standard language speakers are well-educated and come from high social status. Vice versa, this feature is not found in non-standard language.

Non-standard variation is a language form which is not ratified. It is against the rule of standard language. It engages the use of inappropriate vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation according to the codified language.

prestigious social group, the label inevitability acquires negative connotation” (p.133). According to Chambers, Trudgill, and Schilling-Estes (2007) standard speech is associated as high quality manner which is employed in the formal situation such as educational and white collar work environment also cultural institution but slang as the non-standard typed communicates the low quality manner.

The use of non-standard vocabulary, like slang, shows someone‟s social class. People from upper social class will use different vocabulary with those who come from lower social class (Holmes, 2001). Meanwhile, the members of lower class use less prestigious vocabulary. The upper social class members tend to use the standard variety in their speech. They do not only apply the correct grammar but also standard vocabulary. Meanwhile, the lower class members, such as criminals, apply more non-standard language.

According to Holmes (2001), English variation is not only determined by social status, but also by age, gender and regional. This idea is supported by Burton, Dechaine, and Vatikiotis-Bateson (2012) who state that origin, age, social status, gender and sex are numbers of factors that cause the variation in language. The clearest variation in English is showed by regional variation. Holmes (2001) classifies regional variation into two types, namely: international varieties and intra –national or intra-continental variation (e.g. British English variation in Yorkshire and London).

In English, international variety is exemplified by the distinction of British English and American English. The differences exist in their pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar (Holmes, 2001). This phenomenon does not only occur between British and American English. It is also discovered in other countries which use English as their first language. For example, the differences are also found among British English, American English, Canadian English, Australian English, Singaporean English, and New Zealand English.

The international varieties are not only represented by standard variation, but also by slang. Regional variety classifies slang into particular types based on the area (Mattiello, 2008). Eble (1996) says some slang words are associated with certain area. English slang in one country may differ to other countries. For example, bloke is used in British and Americans use guy to refer „a man‟ (Eble, 1996). The distinctions are possibly laid on the meaning of the same slang word as well. In United Kingdom, the terms of baby buggy is used to denote „a mini metro car‟ whilst it means „a convertible Volkswagen beetle‟ in America (Dalzell & Victor, 2007). In the regional variation the distinction is discovered in the slang terms to denote particular object. Ayto (1998) reveals the British slang speakers use johnnies as slang words for „condom‟. Meanwhile, it is called scumbag by the American slang speakers (Ayto, 1998).

3. Language change

Language surely changes over times (Keller, 1994). Holmes (2001) reveals, the phenomenon occurs because the new words are invented by the

speakers then they are spread. As soon as they are widely dispersed, the old vocabulary will be replaced by the new one (Holmes, 2001). There are two possibilities of the sustainability of the new words. According to Holmes (2001), the outspread new word probably stays or die, it depends on whether it is accepted by other speakers or it is rejected. If the word is rejected, thus, it will die and will be replaced by another new invention.

This kind of phenomenon occurs in slang. In 1989, Eble has tried to conduct a study on the use of slang in the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill over fifteen years to attest the rapid change on slang vocabulary (as cited in Eble, 1996). She used students from fifteen period years. In addition, she tabulated 200 slang words that used on the fall of 1972, 200 words employed the fall of 1980, and 500 words applied in the fall of 1987 (cited by Eble, 1996). The finding stated that there were only two percent out of two hundreds slang words that were from 1972 reapplied in 1980. In Addition, there were only one percent of slang words from 1972 that were found on 1987. As the result, her study strengthens the evidence of the ephemerality of slang.

Based on Holmes (2001), language change can spread widely from group to group interaction. She states that the change spreads from an age group, then to a social group, and the last it spreads to the regional group. People who interact with more than one social group have the biggest role of the distribution process of language change (Holmes, 2001). This phenomenon may occur in slang. At first, the new slang word is used by a particular individual or social group. Then it is spread in the wider social group.

In addition, Holmes (2001) states that language changes are possible to infiltrate through the style to style. It occurs because the individual style is adapted by someone who is a member of particular social group (Holmes, 2001). Then, the change spreads from social group to another. Holmes (2001) reveals the case occurs when someone from working-class who adapts a middle-class style. Moreover, the middle class style is applied widely in the working-class group. It also occurs in the local workers‟ speech. The members of high social class use their speech to show the solidarity for the lower class (Holmes, 2001).

According to Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, (2003), language change occurs in the linguistics aspects, such as: phonology, morphology, and syntax. They also add that the change in lexicon is also discovered. The lexical change engages some processes, namely: addition of new words, borrowing words (alcohol from al-kuhul in Arabic), and loss words, and semantics change (Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams, 2003). This is in line with Croft (2000) who states , “society can alter its language through borrowing coinage, calquing, and creation of new constructions, and development of written style in order to extend the language to new domains or stylistic registers or by not doing so, thereby allowing another language to occupy that social niche instead” (p.266)

The addition of new words process in language change occurs by coinage new words, deriving new words from names, blends, back-formation, abbreviation or clipping, and acronym (Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams 2003). According to Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003), coinage word is “the construction/ the invention of new words that then become part of lexicon”

(p.577). They reveal, the example of coinage is the word 24/7 (pronounced twenty four seven) to denote „all the time‟.

Generified word is a process to create a new word from a particular name (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010). Usually, the new vocabulary enters the language from a brand of product. Xerox is one of the generified word examples. At first it originates from a brand name of photo copy machine but it is

used to denote a verb „to photocopy‟ now (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer &

Harnish, 2010).

Blends may affect the lexical change as well. In this process, each part

from two words is combined. O‟Grady, Archibald, Aronoff, and Rees-Miller

(2010) defines blend as “a word that is created from parts of two existing items” (p.612). The word is made by mashing up two chunks of words. It is exemplified by word smog which consists in smoke and fog ( Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams 2003).

Back-formation is one of processes that change the words. According to Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003), back-formation is process of “removing an

affix from an old word” (p.575). Basically, suffix is deleted from the existing

word. For example, edit originates from editor (Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2003). Moreover, it is exemplified by scavenge from scavenger (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010).

Abbreviation process is possible to cause the language changes. Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003) state “the abbreviation of longer words or phrase

may become lexicalized” (p.97). The process is applied by omitting the last part of the words. The process is exemplified by doc that is from doctor, bro that is from brother, and mom that is from mommy. This process is also called as clipping process (Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams 2011).

A lexical change may be created by acronym. It is similar to the abbreviation. However, it is not read each one by one. It is read just like words. The process happens by taking the first letter of the words that created a phrase (Napoli, 1996). The examples of acronym are UNICEF (United Nations Children Fund) and ASEAN (Association of South East Asian Nations).

Furthermore, based on Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003), the addition of new word in lexical change occurs by derivational processes. Derivational processes are the process of affixes attachment to stems to create new words (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2001). It is exemplified by “uglification, finalize, and finalization” (Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2003, p.511). Compounding process is applied to make a lexical change as well. This process forms a new word by combining two or more existing words. The compound words are exemplified by: blabbermouth, bighead, and beat-box.

In the lexical change, the existing words can be lost from the language (Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2003). The phenomenon occurs because the words are stopped to be used and replaced by the new words. It may happen in standard language, such as acutiator (Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2003).

Moreover, the process of words lost is found in slang. Eble (1996) reveals slang can be stopped to be applied because the new slang appears.

Lexical change is also attained by meaning modification. The process is classified into broadening, narrowing, and meaning shift process. Broadening is defined as the sense of a word becomes broader. So the words that used to refer a specific thing now it means everything (Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams, 2003). For example, cool, which was a jargon of jazz musician, is used widely now (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010). According to Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003), narrowing is the process of specifying a word meaning which is more general before. Radfod, Atkinson, Britain, Clahsen, and Spencer (2009) suggest narrowing is exemplified by the word girl that meant a young male or female but now it only denotes a young female. Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, (2003) state that meaning shift process is a process of alteration a negative meaning to positive either from positive to negative. For example, silly meant happy, however, now it means foolish (Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams, 2003)

4. Slang

Some experts define slang into some different definitions. As said by Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010), slang is not easy to be defined precisely but it is not impossible to be described to make it can be recognized. They add that although it is difficult to find the exact definition of slang, they suggest, there are number of salient features that can help to explain it. This is in

line with Battistella (2005) who states “the difficulty of defining slang does not mean that no one has tried” (p.85).

The first feature of slang is informality. According to Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010), slang is a part of informal style. They add that the term of slang carries a negative connotation. The society deems that slang is included as a low and vulgar variety because slang is not sufficient to the formal English variety. That is in line with Coleman (2012) who suggests that slang is one of language variation that is used in the spoken language during the informal situation. Slang brings a bad connotation because it is in the contradiction with standard English which is more prestigious. The users of slang are also affected by the bad connotation from slang itself. People who speak in slang language will be considered as uneducated people who come from a low-social class because they do not use standard English (Coleman, 2012).

Another feature of slang is its similaritties to fashion in clothes and popular music; reveals that it changes quite fast (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010). Slang terms come and go rapidly just like fashion trend. It is popular and used only in a few months or even years. Coleman (2012) also has the same idea about this feature. She suggests that slang is only used briefly then it goes away. However, she also states that slang can enter the language as a colloquial language or the standard english instead of dead and never used anymore.

The third slang feature is related to the group who uses this variation. According to Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010), specific parts of slang are often associated with particular group. Slang is a special vocabulary that is used by a member of a certain social group. The phenomenon is exemplified by slang that is used by a group of Kansas University students who have their own slang words (Dundes & Schonhorn, 1963).

Dumas and Lighter (1978) also have the same view towards slang like Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) and Battistella (2005). Slang is hard to define since there are many different lexicographic definitions about slang (Dumas & Lighter, 1978). However, the definition cannot include all of slang properties. Since slang is difficult to define, Dumas and Lighter (1978) propose some characteristics to help distinguish slang and colloquialism.

Dumas and Lighter (1978) state that a word can be defined as slang if “its presence will markedly lower, at least for the moment, the dignity of formal or serious speech or writing” (p.14). According to Dumas and Lighter (1978), it means that slang is used in the middle of serious speech that usually uses standard English without signaling the writer or speaker is deliberately undignified or intimate with the audience. They also add that the use of slang in this kind of situation is regarded as misuse of register.

Dumas and Lighter (1978) reveal the second slang characteristics is “its

use implies the user's special familiarity either with the referent or with that less statusful or less responsible class of people who have such special familiarity and

use the term” (p.14). Generally, the familiarity in that group is unaccepted by the people from the dominant society (Dumas and Lighter, 1978). For example, the special vocabularies that are used only by Oxford university students and slang that are by drug users.

According to Dumas and Lighter (1978), a word can be defined as slang if “it is a tabooed term in ordinary discourse with persons of higher social status or greater responsibility” (p.15). They add that taboo terms include “the nonlatinate sexual and scatological terms” except the “nursery euphemism”, such as: little job

to denote „urination‟ and job to denote “to defecate” (Dumas and Lighter,

1978:15; Holder, 2008).

The fourth of slang characteristics is if “it is used in place of the well-known conventional synonym, especially in order (a) to protect the user from the discomfort caused by the conventional item or (b) to protect the user from the discomfort or annoyance of further elaboration” (Dumas and Lighter, 1978: 15). Dumas and Lighter (1978) reveal slang has quite similar characteristics with euphemism. They state euphemism has a function to protect the audience and speaker from the discomfort of the use of unpleasant words. Meanwhile, slang is tend to be employed to protect the speakers (Dumas and Lighter, 1978)

Thus, if a word has fulfilled at least two of those four criteria, that word can be qualified as slang (Dumas & Lighter, 1978). Eble (1996) supports their

definition are necessary or sufficient, in the final analysis Dumas and Lighter are right. Slang cannot be defined independent of its function and use.” (p.12).

The application of the four criteria is exemplified by jerk which is used in

the sentence, “Though their dissent was not always noisy or dramatic, many

Americans felt the Presidents was jerk for continuing the war.” (Eble, 1996). Eble

(1996) reveals, in this case, jerk is classified into slang because it fulfills the criteria 1, 2, and 4b.

Slang has some sociological properties which make it differ to the other colloquial terms. Mattiello (2008) concludes some properties which are owned by slang from some experts. Sociological properties usually show the relation between the use of slang and sociological reasons. It is exemplified by the use of slang to create group restriction. Below is the sociological properties of slang and also the description according to Mattiello (2008).

a. Group restriction

The intention of slang users is to keep the outsiders not entering the group. Slang is employed in order to make the outsiders do not understand the conversation of particular group members. Mattiello (2008) states that slang is frequently described as an in-group vocabulary that identifies a “common age and

experience, and facilitates their group solidarity“(p.46). This is in line with

Battistella (2005) who suggests “slang is used to create a kind of linguistic solidarity or status by identifying oneself with a group out of the mainstream or by

setting oneself apart from conventional values through a style of toughness and ironic detachment” (p. 86).

Slang is usually used by a group of people who share the same identity, for example a gang of teenagers who shares same age and habit or a group of college students who study in the same university. Slang strengthens member‟s solidarity and it alienates the outsiders because slang words are only understood by the group members. For example, students from particular university share slang words among them (Kratz, 1964).

b. Informality

Slang appears in the formal situation to make informality. The aim of slang is to decrease the formality and to create a more familiar situation in the conversation (Mattiello, 2008, p.46). It is usually used in the dailly conversation to make the situation less serious and friendlier. The slang users choose slang to replace the conventional vocabulary. Thus, the formality will decrease.

c. Time Restriction

Mattiello (2008) states “slang is temporary since it changes over time” (p.47). It means that slang exists in the particular generation. The change among the generations occurs as an effect of the old generations grow up and the next generations come then change the old slang by making a new trend. For example, in 1920s, slang for word excellent was wizard and in the 1930s-1940s that term

became groovy, then, people who lived in fifties changed it into magic. Meanwhile in 1960s, it was popular as fab which comes from fabulous.

d. Ephemerality

Slang is decribed as “… an ephemeral, short-lived, ever-changing

vocabulary” by Mattiello in 2008 (p.47). This idea is supported by Eble (1996) who states, “slang is ephemeral” the new vocabulary that enters the language changes rapidly (p.12-13). Thus, slang is not long lasting. It will disappear as soon as after it is created. However, there are some slang words which have been slang for a long time or they transform into informal form or colloquial term (Eble, 1996).

e. Debasement

Mattiello (2008) states that slang is considered as “debased, subordinate speech, characteristically dominated by reversed prestige, lack of dignity and anti-social features.” (p.47). Slang is viewed as a low and negative variety. Its users are considered that they degrade their prestige and disgrace their self. It is regarded as non-prestigious variety since it against the standard variety. It breaks language rule in standard variety. Batistella (2005) reveals slang is regarded as a bad language which is seen as “undignified an unintelligible” so teachers and parent do not suggest their children to apply slang (p.84).

Freshness is one of properties that are found in slang. Based on Mattiello (2008), slang is often defined as “fresh vital vocabulary that keeps language alive and growing (p.47). This is also supported by Coleman (2012) who equalizes slang as a wild fruit implanted onto a tame stock of language which give a new vitality on language (p.9). Slang refreshes the language. It creates new words and keeps the language growing and renewing (Coleman, 2012). Using slang in the conversation brings a fresh feeling. It also makes the speech sound more interesting and less monotonous.

g. Playfulness

Mattiello (2008) states “slang is usually playful, since it manipulates word and their meaning. Slang makes word sounds funny. Its effect is created by applying jocular sounds to create slang words (Mattiello, 2008). It may happen by suffixation of affix –y and –ie. The exampling is showed by huggy to denote „hug‟.

h. Obscenity

Slang is close to the taboo subjects of culture because it is rich in dirty words and obscenity (Mattiello, 2008, p.48). Slang uses vocabulary which come from the subject which is taboo to be discussed. Usually, those words related to sexual things such as pussy, prick, fuck, wank, etc. Slang vocabulary also can be formed form excretion subject such as, crap, shit, and dingleberry.

According to Mattiello (2008), “sometimes slang is described as the special, even specialized, vocabulary of some professions, occupations or activities in society”. Slang is usually used by particular people who have the same jobs. In instances, drug dealer, robber, and mafia. For those people who deal with the criminal field, slang has function as a secret code among their group. Furthermore, their slang is only recognized by people who have the same jobs.

j. Novelty

Slang is novel because new terms always appear in slang. As stated by

Mattiello (2008) “slang is generally up-to-date” (p.48). Once, a slang word will be

outdated. People stop using the word. Then, new generations renew it by created new vocabulary. This property of slang is exemplified by the word boo that is

used to denote „a lover or babe‟ is replaced by bae.

k. Orality

Slang exists through spoken language. It does not develop in the formal situation. Commonly, it is used in the informal conversation. Mattiello (2008) reveals slang is associated to spoken language. The employment of slang in the oral language makes it popular in the particular social group. Slang is not created from written language.

Slang users have an intention to use different vocabulary than the conventional ones. Dumas and Lighter (1978, p.13) argue that the speakers form

slang “to break with the established linguistics convention“, (As cited by Mattiello

2008, p. 49). Speakers want to create new terms and employ them to change common vocabulary. Thus, they change the usual words into the new terms. The speakers can use the words super, quality, rock, cool, badass, wicked, corker, killer, and brill to alter the use of word good, which is considered as a conventional term.

m. Faddishness

Dominantly, slang is figure of speech to create new vocabulary. Mattiello (2008, p. 49) cites slang consists of strange vocabulary which is invented by

“bizarre metaphors” (Allen, 1998, p.878) and “extravagant, forced, or facetious

figure of speech” (Mc Henry ed., 1993, p.871).” Slang is full of figure of speech. However, there is no clear reason why the figure of speech is used to denote the object. It is exemplified by bird and chick that are used to denote girls. There is no reason why they represent girls (Mattiello, 2008).

n. Humor

Slang usually sounds funny. According to Mattiello (2008, p.49), slang is usually hilarious. This is in line with Yust (Ed) (1950, p.766) who suggests, “an element of humour is almost always present in slang, usually as humorous

o. Vulgarity

Mattiello (2008) states, “slang has been associated with bad language.”It is full of vulgar words which denote to taboo object. Things that are related to sexual activities (handy, blowy, beaver, hickie, reef, that there, rumpty-tumpty, clunge diver, fist fuck, etc.), excrement (doo-doo, skid, dingleberry, road apples, pooh, crap, dump, biggies, syphon the python, and widdle,), and other topics which are taboo to be mentioned or spoken frankly are commonly included in slang. That is why slang is considered as impolite language because it is used to cover the taboo object.

p. Desire to Impress

One of the reasons slang is used by the speakers is because they want “to

impress or shock others” (Mattiello, 2008, p.50). This view is in line with Patridge

(1947, p.288) who says that one of the reasons of using slang is to be “arresting, striking, or even startling.” (as cited by Mattiello, 2008). It is also supported by Andersson and Trudgill (1990, p.78) who state, “the point of slang words is often

to be starling, amusing or shocking.” (as cited in Mattiello, 2008). The example

of this case is that slang is applied by a group of male teenager to impress the girls.

q. Hybridism

Slang can be described as “a hybrid language” because some vocabularies from foreign language enter into slang list of word (Mattiello, 2008, p.51). It

means that slang can be created by borrowing several vocabularies from other languages outside English. Borrowing process in slang is exemplified by the word cojones denoting „testicles‟, it originally comes from Spanish word cojón (testicles).

r. Localism

Slang is just like standard English which is differentiated based on the geographic condition. It has differences in terms of vocabulary which is divided based on the regions (Mattiello, 2008, p.51). The distinctions are instanced by American slang and British slang which have different slang vocabulary. The differences also exist in Australian slang and Canadian slang. It means that every region uses different vocabulary. The distinction may be found in slang word that

denotes „man‟. Australian slang speakers use cove, Scottish slang speakers say

chappy, and New Zealand slang uses joker to denote „man‟. In addition, American slang employs dude and it is called bloke in British. Those variations also differ in terms of denoting a woman. For example, Australian slang and New Zealand slang call a woman as Sheila, sheelah, sheilah, shelah. Meanwhile, British people use bird to name her. However, In American people use chicks to refer a woman.

s. Colour

Anderson and Trudgill (1990, p.16) suggest that slang has a function “to make your speech vivid, colourful and interesting” (as cited in Mattiello, 2008, p.51). The characteristic of slang is not only to keep the group boundary but also to make the language sounds interesting. Since slang has several words to refer a

particular thing (e.g. bird, chick, gash, and muff to refer „girl‟), slang makes the language is not boring to be used. The users may change the conventional words with slang to make their utterances not boring and have a lot of word variations.

t. Impertinence

Slang is impertinent. It is impolite and it has a tendency to disrespect people. According to Mattiello (2008), slang uses some impolite appellations and derogatory terms. For an example, debbies is used as a derogatory of „an elegant and attractive man in high society who flirts‟; bimbo is used to „denote a stupid beautiful woman‟.

u. Offensiveness

Since slang is full of derogatory vocabularies, it offenses people. Based on Mattiello, (2008), slang is used to offense people by using particular vocabulary which characterizes certain group of people in the basis of negative stereotype. Some slang words convey negative meaning to offense a group of people with certain quality. For examples, fag is used to offense „male homosexual‟; bitch which has negative meaning is used to call „an unkind or unpleasant woman‟, is used as a derogatory for a woman; nigga is derogatory terms to denote the „black people from Africa‟.

v. Secrecy

One of slang‟s typicals is to keep secrets and to hide the conversation from

particular social group. Slang users employ slang in order to conceal secret important information. They cover the real meaning so that the outsiders do not understand the information. Criminals, like drug dealer and robbers, employ slang so the police will not be able to capture their conversation which contains with important secret information.

w. Musicality

According to Mattiello (2008), slang tends “to play with sounds” and uses rhyme to create slang. She proposes it happens in the Cockney Rhyming Slang (Mattiello 2008 p.53), for example rock and ages „ wages‟, bull and cow „row‟, adam and eve „to believe‟. Besides Cockney rhyming slang, the rhyming sound of slang is exemplified by reduplication and alliteration.

x. Privacy

Slang is private vocabulary. Speakers use slang with the intention to keep the group privacy by excluding the outsiders because they do not want the outsiders to understand the in-group conversation (Mattiello, 2008). However, at the same time slang exhibits the group‟s bond and closeness because the shared information is only understood by the group members (Mattiello, 2008). For example, slang is applied in the group of the drug dealers, thieves, robbers or other criminals groups to keep their privacy so the police or the other people who

are not included in their group will not understand their conversation. This is also applied by a group of boys who look for girls as sexual partners. Slang is applied by homosexuals to cover their identity from society as well.

y. Aggressiveness

Slang is regarded as aggressive language variation because some slang words offense people. Allen (1998, p.878) suggests that slang is “vicious and

hostile verbal aggression” (as cited in Mattiello, 2008, p.53). This is in line with

Mattiello (2008,p.53) who says, “slang is aggressive and forceful and at times

malicious or even cruel”. It is used as a derogatory vocabulary to refer a particular

type of people. Slut, bitch, and bimbo are the examples of slang words that are offensive for woman.

z. Culture Restriction

Social boundaries are created by slang. Mattiello (2008) states, “slang is a marker of cultural differences. It is viewed as an language that serves an anti-society (like beggars and gamblers) and generally associated with the level of society that is culturally sub-standard.” (p.53). It means that slang is considered as low language variety that is employed by the low social group such as thieves, gangster, drug dealers, etc. Slang becomes a limit that marks a certain group identity which is disapproved by the higher social group.

Slang is used to attain efficiency. Once, Mattiello (2008) reveals “slang is efficient in the sense that slang words may be much more direct than their

standard corresponding description” (p.54). Patridge (1946) also suggests that

slang is employed to change the complicated word with the brief and concise one (cited by Mattiello, 2008). Mattiello (2008) adds that slang is not always concise but it evidently simplifies word which becomes complicated when it changes into standard word. In example, it is easier to say chicken rather than „a young in

-experienced male prostitute‟. It is also simpler to say the creep rather than

„having a feeling of horror caused by something mysterious‟. bb. Individuality

Mattiello (2008) states that slang are considered as “a marker of an individual‟s identity”. It reveals speakers personal information like age, gender, attitude, condition, education, interests, etc (Mattiello, 2008, p. 54). By employing slang, the users‟ identity may be identified because every group is divided based on the social background, such as age, hobbies, and lifestyle. Therefore, each social group has their own slang words.

cc. Prestige

Once Anderson and Trudgill (1990) also Allen (1998) state that slang is used to covert prestige which is associated with toughness and strength or other positives quality like independence and naturalness ( as cited in Mattiello, 2008, p.54). Covert prestige means conceal the real quality and build new image. It is usually applied by male. Men have a tendency to use more slang to gain prestige

because slang creates a strong, tough, and manly impression. According to Mattiello (2008), young men tempt to use slang swearword to build their reputation, status, and to strengthen group bound.

dd. Technicality

Slang explains the technical terms in particular realm based on the activity. Mattiello (2008, p.55) states, “slang can sometimes be viewed as a „technolect‟ as it behaves as terminology in terms of restricted use.” She adds that the technicality feature is exemplified by sloth which means „to kill or to injure someone‟.

ee. Spontaneity

Since slang is uttered spontaneously by the speakers, spontaneity becomes one of slang characteristics. Mattiello (2008) reveals slang is a free natural speech,

associated with cities and modern society.” Allen (1998) noted that many slang

words are used in spontaneous conversation and prompted by the media (cited in Mattiello, 2008).

5. Rhyming Slang

Rhyming slang is one of slang types that are popular in East London. It calls Cockney rhyming slang because it consist of two word which the second word is rhyme with the actual meaning. In 2008, Mattiello proposes rhyming

rhyme with it” (p.42). Trouble and strive for „wife‟, apple and pears for „stairs, and ham and beef for „chief‟ are the examples of rhyming slang.

6. Specific and General Slang

Slang is classified into specific and general slang (Mattiello, 2008). Specific slang is a restricted slang that is only used by the particular group. According to Mattiello (2008), the use of specific slang conveys the users‟ identity, for examples their social group, and origins. Usually, it is used by people who share the same age, interests, lifestyle, and origins. Thus, slang can be specified into university students‟ slang, drug users‟ slang, adolescents‟ slang,

homosexuals‟ slang, British slang, Australian slang, etc. (Matiello,2008). Each

group has their own slang vocabularies which strengthens group solidarity (Eble, 1996). Moreover, Mattiello (2008) reveals specific slang is also limited by the topic. It can be classified into topic that relates to sex, drugs, criminal, or others.

Meanwhile, Mattiello (2008) reveals general slang is applied to break the standard language and to change the formal speech into the informal speech. It does not show the group and subjects boundaries. Therefore, it spreads widely (Mattiello, 2008). General slang is not only used by people from particular social group. It is used widely in some social groups; for example, the slang word shit is not only used by teenagers but also applied by young adult.

Mattiello (2008) states that, the classification of slang into specific type or general is depends on the context. Thus, slang vocabulary is possibly to have more than one different meaning. It is exemplified by the word rock or rocks.

According to Thorne (2007), rocks means „cocaine‟ and the meaning exists among the drug dealers or users‟. However, it means „mistakes‟ in baseball (Ayto, 1998).

7. Morphology

Morphology is one of linguistics branches focusing on how words are built. Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) suggest morphology as a part of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and the relationships among words. Mihalicek and Wilson (2011) also define morphology as the component of mental grammar that focuses on types of words and how words are formed out of smaller meaningful pieces and other words. They add that morphology tries to explain which meaningful pieces of language is able to be combined and what words will come as the result of the combination which will influence the meaning and the grammatical function. According to Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010), Morphology answers the questions about what words are, what the basic building blocks in the formation of complex words, how complex words are built up from simpler parts, how the meaning of complex words is related to the meaning of its part, and how individual words of language are related to other words of the language. Through those definitions, it can be concluded that morphology is a linguistics study about word formation. The linguists study about morphemes combination and new meaning which is formed by the transformation through the morphology.

Many processes are applied to build new word. Katamba (1994) and Plag (2002), suggest affixation, derivation, blending, clipping, back-formation, and borrowing are processes to form new words. Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) also reveal some morphological processes which are in line with Katamba (1994) and Plag (2002). However, Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) stated some differences in the realm of word formation processes. They group English word-formation processes into four parts. They noted they are classified into neologism, derivational morphology, inflectional morphology, and changing the meaning of the words or meaning modification.

a. Creating New Words (Neologism)

Neologism can be concluded as processes to create new words (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, (2010). It involves fifteen types of processes. They are coined word, acronym, alphabetic abbreviation, clipping, blends, generified word, proper nouns, borrowing, internal change, suppletions, reduplication, tone placement, cliticization, back-formation, and onomatopoeia. The procedures of neologism are described in the following parts

1) Coined Words

Coining is formation of a new word which comes by inventing new vocabulary. Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003) reveal coining words is one of processes to broaden the vocabulary. In coining process, new word that never

exists previously but they keep entering the language (Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer & Harnish, 2010). It is born to represent things that cannot be explained by the existed words. Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) give examples that coining happened in the adolescent slang like geek and dweeb.

2) Acronyms

Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010) define acronym as the formation of the first letter (letters) of a sequence of words is (are) used to spell a new word. Thus, it can be said as word that is created by the first letter from each word in the abbreviation. The special feature of acronym is that it can be read as one word. Acronym process is exemplified by: NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization), UNICEF (The United Nation Children‟s Fund), and LASER (Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation).

3) Alphabetic Abbreviation

In alphabetic abbreviation, each letter is individually pronounced. The format looks like acronym but the first letters are pronounced separately (Katamba, 1994). The letters are pronuced one by one. Alphabetic abbreviation acts like a new word. According to Akmadjian, Demers, Farmer, and Harnish (2010), alphabetical abbreviation replaces the longer word into a short form. The exampling of alphabetic abbreviation is in OOT (Out of the Topic) and UNHCR (United Nation High Commissioner for Refugee).

156

19. Listen to me, that bird Becky's an animal. Animal 2, 4a, 4b ME Someone who is wild in bed.

20. When Carli finds out, she's going to be two things - jealous and wet, because now she'll know you're a stud.

Wet 3, 4a, 4b ME Sexually aroused ( for women)

21. Stud 2, 4a, 4b ME a sexually active,

powerful, potent male. 22. Your ride for the evening is here. Ride 2, 4a, 4b CPS, ME sex

partner. This is a later derivation of the

(now less common) verb form of the

word. 23. Don't worry, I'll distract fatty Boom Boom with

the buffet.

Fatty boom-boom

2, 4a,4b Cmp, O, R Fat person

24. Oh, just taking the piss. Piss 2,4a, 4b ME Alcoholic drink 25. If I was as bad with the ladies as you, I'd have

moved on to the fatties months ago.

Fatties 4a, 4b Aff Fat person

26. Where is she now, then? Cleaning up her beaver for you?

Beaver 3, 4a, 4b ME A Female genital

27. You're more likely to get somewhere with a fatso, cos they're grateful for the attention.

Fatso 2, 4a, 4b Aff Fat person

28. Make one little joke and he has a shit fit! Shit fit 2, 4a, 4b R a bout of anger or intense irritation,

29. Neil, did you wet yourself in my new car? Wet 3, 4a, 4b ME Sexually aroused term form woman

30. Some sort of punky redhead. Punky 4a, 4b Aff Punk 31. Because you have spunked on my seats! Spunked 3, 4a, 4b CPS, Inf To ejaculate

32. It's your spunk! Spunk 3, 4a, 4b SD Cement. It was BI. From spongia

157

33. Some of it could be her juice. Juice 3, 4a, 4b C Sexual secretion derived from love juice

158

APPENDIX 6: English Slang Word-Formation in Season 1 Episode 6 The Inbetweeners

Title: X-mas Party

No Scentences Slang Characteristics Code Of

Morphological Process

Meaning

1. That sounded just a little bit rapey. rapey 4a, 4b Aff To describe sentences overly explicit in sexual nature

2. Listen, lard-arse.

There will be food. so shut the fuck up so we can get this over with!

Lard-arse 3, 4a, 4b Cmp fat

3. What we want is a big mucky disco and a piss-up.

Piss-up 4a, 4b Cmp drunk

4. Yeah, under my supervision and that was a wicked party.

Wicked 4a, 4b Rv good

5. Prom night had arrived, 'and as I watched my crack team setting things up, 'it's fair to say I was shitting myself.

Crack team 1, 4a, 4b Cmp Highly special team

6. Your cock, it looks so tiny. Cock 2, 3 ME Male vital organ 7. 'Despite being organised by my

team of geeks, 'it actually looked like people were enjoying the party.

Geeks 4a, 4b CW Freak people

159

9. 'the problem with drinking for Dutch courage 'is the next level of drunk up from that is Dutch dickhead.

Dutch dickhead 1, 4a, 4b Cmp A fool act because because of a drink taken

10. Yeah, alright, Made a few cock-ups.

Cock-ups 3, 4a, 4b Cmp Mistakes, blunders or shambles

11. I left them just as they were gonna start drinking beer - out of each other's bum cracks.

Bum cracks 4a, 4b Cmp a very narrow space between parts of bottoms

12. I just need to say that Um Simon, I've had enough of dickheads today.

dickheads 1, 2 Cmp A fool, an idiot

13. Don't be a tit. tit SD A fool

14. Guess who just got a blowy behind the decks?

blowy 3, 4a, 4b Aff Action of fellatio

15. She gave me a hand job, not a blowy.

Hand job 3, 4a, 4b Cmp an act of manual sexual stimulation,

usually masturbation of a male by a

female. 16. Well, that's handy, cos they've got

no interest in you.

handy 3, 4a, 4b ME dishonest

17. I fingered a bird. fingered 3, 4a, 4b ME, Inf to sexually stimulate (vaginally or

anally) with the finger(s) 18. All right, sick-boy boner? boner 1, 3 Aff an erection.

19. You've got balloons, you're already one up on any event the school's ever had before. Just relax.

balloon 1, 4a, 4b ME a boastful or loudmouthed individual

160

20. I understand how you feel, you know.

Back in a mo.

mo 4a,4b C Moment

21. Oh, that dick dick 2, 3 SD Stupid man 22. It's already come down from a

blow job.

161

APPENDIX 7: The Distributions of English Slang Word-Formation in the First Season of The Inbetweeners

Word-Formation

Processes

Occurrences Word-Formation Processes Occurrences

Coined Word 6 words Tone Placement n/a

Acronyms n/a Cliticization 2 words

Alphabetical Abbreviation n/a Back-Formation 1 word

Clipping 12 words Onomatopoeia 2 word

Blending 2 words Change in the Part of Speech 6 words

Generified Word n/a Metaphorical Extension 28 words

Proper Noun 4 words Broadening 1 word

Borrowing 4 words Narrowing n/a

Inflection 12 words Semantic Drift 11 words

Internal Change 2 words Reversal 1 words

Suppletions 1 word Compounding 39 words