Dick and Carey’s Theory
information which a student needs, or the identification of steps in a procedural sequence which must be followed to perform a particular process.
3 Identifying entry behaviours and characteristics It is necessary to identify the specific skills that students must have prior to
beginning instruction. It determines the specific knowledge, skills, general characteristic of the learners. These characteristics might include special interest,
maturation level, attention span, and so on. 4 Writing performance objectives
The designers state the specific skills, condition, and successful performance after students complete the module.
5 Developing criterion-referenced test In this step, the designers develop assessment instruments to measure the
students’ ability to achieve the objectives. 6 Developing an instructional strategy
Based on information from the five preceding steps, the designers identify the strategy that will be used in instructional module to reach the objective. The
strategy includes sections on preinstructional activities, presentation of information, practice and feedback, testing, and follow-through activities.
7 Developing and selecting instruction After deciding the instructional strategy used, the designers produce an
instructional module. It will include a student manual, instructional materials, tests, and a teacher’s guide.
23 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
8 Designing and conducting the formative evaluation A series of evaluation are conducted to determine the effectiveness of the
complete draft of instruction. This evaluation is intended to improve the module. The three types of formative evaluation are referred to as one-on-one evaluation,
small-group evaluation, and field evaluation. 9 Revising instruction
Data obtained from formative evaluation is used to re-examine the validity of the instructional analysis and the assumptions about the entry behaviours of students.
The instructional strategy, the statements of performance of objectives and test item are reviewed. Then, the evaluation data collected is incorporated into
revisions to make a more effective instructional tool. 10 Conducting summative evaluation
Although summative evaluation is the culminating evaluation of the effectiveness of instruction, it is not a part of the design process. It occurs only after the
instruction has been formatively evaluated and sufficiently revised to meet the standards of the designers.
The instructional model proposed by Dick Carey is described in Figure 2.3. 24
25 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
7. Cooperative Learning Cooperative learning is a means of grouping students in small, mixed-ability
learning teams. The teacher presents the group with problem to solve or task to perform. Students in the group then work among themselves, help one another, praise
and criticize one another’s contribution, and receive a group performance score. Burden Byrd, 1999:99
The writer chooses cooperative learning as the strategy used in teaching learning activity. This strategy gives positive impact to the students. In cooperative
learning, the students work together to learn and are responsible for their teammates’ learning as well as their own.
a. Expected Outcomes of Cooperative Learning In his book ‘Cooperative Learning’, Slavin 1991:2 argues many reasons that
cooperative learning is entering the mainstream educational practice. One is the extraordinary research base supporting the use of cooperative learning to increase
student achievement, as well as such other outcomes as improved inter-group relations, acceptance of academically handicapped classmates, and increased self-
esteem. Another reason is the growing realization that students need to learn to think, to solve problem, and to integrate and apply knowledge and skills.
Cooperative learning activities instil in learners important behaviours that prepare them to reason and perform in and adult world. These are five behaviours as
student outcomes expected from cooperative learning Borich, 1996: 422 1 Attitudes and values
Adult learners form their attitudes and values from social interaction. Discussing what we know or think with others forms most of our attitudes and values. In this
26 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
manner, they exchange information and knowledge with that of others who have acquired their knowledge in different ways. This exchange shapes our views and
perspective. These attitudes and values very often are left untaught in schools. Many classrooms rely solely on formally acquired knowledge, with learners
competing for grades and reinforcement. Cooperative learning is important in helping learners acquire from the curriculum the basic cooperative attitudes and
values they need to think independently inside and outside of your classroom. 2 Prosocial behaviour
It is during close and meaningful encounters among family members that models of prosocial behaviour are communicated. Children learn right from wrong
implicitly through their actions and the actions of others that come to the attention of adult family members. These adults are quick to point out the effects
of these actions on family, friend, and the community. Cooperative learning brings learners together in adult like settings which, when
carefully planned and executed, can provide appropriate models of social behaviour.
3 Alternative perspective and viewpoints We form our attitudes and values by confronting viewpoints contrary to our own.
We are forced into objectivity necessary for thinking critically, reasoning, and problem solving. We become less self-centred. Depending on the merits of what
we see and hear, we grow more open to exchanging our feelings and beliefs with those of others. Cooperative learning provides the context or ‘meeting ground’
where many different viewpoints can be orchestrated, from which we form more articulate attitudes and values of our own.
27 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
4 Integrated identity One of the most noticeable outcomes of social interaction is its effect on how we
develop our personalities and learn who we are. Social interaction over long periods forces us to ‘see ourselves’- our attitude, values, and abilities- in many
different circumstances. The main result is that inconsistencies and contradictions in who we are- or think we are. We attempt to resolve such contradictions, to
clarify what we really believe and to believe what we really say. Our personality becomes more coherent and integrated and is perceived by others as a more
forceful and confident projection of our thoughts and feelings. Overtime, repeated social interactions reduce the contradiction until our views become
singular and consistent and we achieve an integrated identity. 5 Higher thought process
Cooperative learning actively engages the student in the learning process and seeks to improve the critical thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving skills of
the learner. Critical thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving cannot occur outside a context of attitudes and values, prosocial behaviour, alternative
perspectives and viewpoints, and an integrated identity. Cooperative learning provides the ingredients for higher thought process to occur
and sets them to work on realistic and adult like tasks.
b. Basic Elements of Cooperative Learning Johnson and Johnson 1994: 81 point out that each lesson in cooperative
learning should include five basic elements: 28
1 Positive interdependence Students must feel they are responsible for their own learning and that of the
other members of the group. 2 Face-to-face interaction
Students must have the opportunity to explain what they are learning to each other.
3 Individual accountability Each student must be held accountable for mastery of the assigned work. In
addition, Slavin also emphasizes the importance of individual accountability. Slavin states that individual accountability motivates students to do a good job
explaining to each other, as the only way for the team to succeed is for all team members to master the information or skills being taught 1995: 6.
4 Social skills Each student must communicate effectively; maintain respect among group
members, and work together to resolve conflicts. 5 Group processing
Groups must be assessed to see how well they are working together and how they can improve.
c. Cooperative Learning Methods Slavin had developed five principle cooperative learning methods.
Five principal Student Team Learning methods have been developed and extensively researched. There are general cooperative learning methods
adaptable to most subjects and grade levels: Student Teams-Achievement Divisions STAD, Teams-Games-Tournaments TGT, and Jigsaw II. The
remaining two are comprehensive curricula designed for use in particular 29
subjects at particular grade levels: Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition CIRC for reading and writing instruction in grades 2-8, and
Team Accelerated Instruction TAI for mathematics in grades 3-6. All five methods incorporate team rewards, individual accountability, and equal
opportunities for success, but in different ways. 1995:5
Student Teams-Achievement Divisions STAD . It involves four-member learning
teams that are mixed in performance level, sex, and ethnicity. The teacher presents a lesson, and then students work within their teams to make sure all team members
have mastered the lesson. Then, all students take individual quizzes on the material, at which time they may not help one another. It consists of five major components-
class presentations, teams, quizzes, individual improvement scores, and team recognition. Slavin, 1995: 5.
Borich 1996: 100 also explains STAD. The explanations is quoted as follows:
After the teacher presents a lesson, students work within their teams to make sure that all members have mastered the lesson. Students then individually
take a quiz. Students’ quiz scores are awarded based on the degree to which students meet or exceed their earlier performance. These points are then
totalled to form team scores.
Slavin 1995: 6 shows the main idea of the use of STAD. The main idea behind Student Team-Achievement Divisions is to motivate students to encourage
and help each other master skills presented by the teacher.
Teams-Games-Tournament TGT. As in STAD, TGT uses teacher presentations
and teamwork. However, TGT uses academic games to show students’ individual mastery of the subject matter. Students compete as representatives of their teams
with members of other teams who have similar past record in the academic performance. The competition takes place at tournament tables of three students who
have similar ability. 30
Team Accelerated Instruction TAI. It is a combination of individualized
instruction and team learning. Students work in the same heterogeneous teams as with other student team learning methods, but students study individualized
academic materials. Teammates check each other’s work from answer sheets and help one another with any problems. Final unit tests are taken without teammate help
and are scored by student monitors. Each week teachers total the number of units completed by all team members. Slavin, 1995:7
Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition CIRC. CIRC is a
comprehensive program for teaching reading, writing, and language arts in the upper elementary grades. CIRC consists of three principal elements: basal-related activities,
direct instruction in reading comprehension, and integrated language arts and writing. Slavin, 1995: 106.
Borich also proposes the explanation of CIRC CIRC is a comprehensive program for teaching reading for teaching reading
and writing in the upper elementary grades. Teacher uses basal readers and reading groups like traditional reading programs. However, students are
assigned to teams composed of pairs of students from two different reading groups. While student works with one reading group, students in the other
groups work in pairs in a series of cognitively engaging activities, including reading to one another, making predictions of how stories will end,
summarizing stories to one another, writing responses to stories, and practicing spelling, decoding, and vocabulary. 1996: 101.
Jigsaw II
. In Jigsaw technique, students work in the same four-member, heterogeneous teams as in STAD and TGT. The students are assigned materials
chapter, short book, biographies, or other materials to read. Each team member is randomly assigned to become an “expert” on some aspect of the reading assignment.
After reading the material, experts from different teams meet to discuss their common topics, and then they return to teach their topics to their teammates. Finally,
there is a quiz or other assessment on all topics. Slavin, 1995: 6 31
Considering that tourism academy students involve with society even international society, cooperative learning is a suitable method, which can be used in
teaching English. Besides, cooperative learning gives students opportunity to interact with their friends. It will encourage students to practice English.
The most important goal of cooperative learning is to provide students with the knowledge, concepts, skills, and understanding they need to become happy and
contributing members of society.