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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter concerns the discussion related to the theories and literatures underlying this study which is divided into two parts, namely theoretical
description and theoretical framework.
A. Theoretical Description
This part discusses the theories related to the topic of this study. It consists of the theory of instructional design models, teaching vocabulary, and outdoor
learning activity.
1. Instructional Design Models
There are many kinds of instructional design models which can be employed as the basic to design materials. In this study, the researcher used two
models of instructional design as the theories. They were Kemp’s model 1977 and Yalden’s model 1987.
a. Kemp’s Instructional Design Model
The writer used Kemp’s model since this model provided the detailed-steps and it can also be started from any step. Kemp 1977 said that instructional
design is the approach and procedures in instructional technology p.8. This model can be applied at any education level such as elementary, secondary, and
college. Kemp 1977, p.8 stated that there are three questions or elements which must be considered in designing materials. They are 1 what must be learned?
objectives, 2 What procedures and resources will work best to reach the
9 desired learning level? activities and resources, 3 How will we know when the
required learning has taken place? evaluation. According to Kemp 1977 there is a plan which consists of eight 8 steps to answer those questions. They are
stated as follows.
1 Goals, Topics, and General Purposes
Most of the instructional designs begin with a recognition of the broad goals of the school system. After recognizing the goal, the next step is listing the
major topics which would become the scope of the basis for the instruction. The topics are usually a sequence from simple or concrete level to complex and more
abstract level Kemp, 1977, pp. 13-15. The last step is stating the general purposes what want to be expected which is related to the broad goals of system.
2 The Learners Characteristics
In this part, the writer should recognize the factors that will affect the learners’ characteristics when designing on instructional plan. Kemp 1977
mentioned the two factors. They are academic factors and social factors. Academic factors consist of number of students academic background, grade-
point average, level of intelligence, reading level, scores on standardized achievement and aptitude tests, study habits, background in the subject or topic,
motivation for studying the subject, expectation of the course, vocational and cultural aspirations. Meanwhile, social factors include age, maturity, attention
span, special talents, physical and emotional handicaps, relations among students, socioeconomic situation p.19. in order to obtain the information of the learners’
10 characteristics, the writer may use observation, questionnire, interview, and test
Kemp, 1977, pp. 18-19.
3 Learning Objectives
The next step is learning objectives. It is important because it becomes the outcome of instruction. In this part, a good teacher should tell the students what
are the goals which must be achieved at the end of the learning process Kemp, 1977, p.23
4 Subject Content
Kemp 1977 states that the content must closely relate to the objectives and the student’s needs p.43. In other words, subject content should support the
objectives. Kemp also mentioned that there are some questions which should be answered before listing the content, such as:
1. What specifically must be taught or learned in this topic?
2. What facts, concepts, and principles related to this topic?
3. What steps are involved in necessary procedures relating to this topic?
4. What techniques are required in performing essential skills? 1977, p.45
5 Pre-Assessment
Pre-Assessment is the prerequisite. The purpose of pre-assessment is to examine student’s preparation to learn the topics or units and measure the
student’s understanding about the topics or units which have been learnt. In this part it is important to find out the answer from the questions 1 to
what extent each students has acquired the necessary prerequisities for studying the topic, 2 what the students may have already mastered about the subject to be
11 studied in order to plan learning activity and ensure that learners do not take their
time on things they already know Kemp, 1977, p.51.
6 Teaching Learning Activities and Resources
In this part a teacher has to determine the most efficient and effective method which is continued by selecting the materials to provide learning
experiences that will utilize the content associated with each objective Kemp, 1977, p.55.
7 Support Services
Support services are required to implement the design plan. This part deals with support services which must be considered in the instructional plans.
They are funds, facilities, equipment, and personnel Kemp, 1977, p.84.
8 Evaluation
Kemp 1977, p.91 argues that evaluation is the payoff step in the instructional design plan. The purpose of the evaluation is to examine the design
materials, revise the design materials, improve the design to gain the best design materials and measure whether the materials already meet the objectives or not.
The steps of Kemp’s model are presented in figure 2.1 below.
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Figure 2.1 Kemp’s Instructional Design Model Kemp, 1977, p.9 b.
Yalden’s Model
Yalden’s model is the second instructional design model which is used by the writer as the bases to construct a communicative syllabus. Yalden 1987
states that a communicative syllabus is a syllabus which is designed for describing a classroom experience which is more appropriate in an environment of real
Revise
Goals, topics, and
general purposes
Learning objective
s
Pre assessment
Support services
evaluation
Subject content
Learners character
istics
Teaching
lea rning
activities, Resources
13 language and art p.85. According to Yalden 1987, pp. 101-145 there are eight
8 steps in constructing a communicative syllabus. The steps are stated as follows.
1. Need Survey