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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURES
In this chapter, the writer would like to present a discussion of related literatures as a theoretical base in designing a set of English writing materials based
on Ignatian Pedagogy for Theology Study Program students. There are two main parts included in this chapter, namely the theoretical description and the theoretical
framework.
A. Theoretical Description
The theoretical description consists of some theories relevant to the research that would be discussed directly. The first section of the theoretical description is
focused on the discussion on instructional design models. The second section is going to discuss Ignatian Pedagogy. The last section deals with some theories of teaching
English writing skill.
1. Instructional Design
Borg and Gall 2007 explained that education Research and Development RD is:
An industry-based development model in which the findings of research are used to design new products and procedures, which are systematically field-
tested, evaluated, and refined until they meet specific criteria of effectiveness, quality, or similar standards p. 589.
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It means that education R D is a process to develop educational products used to support teaching-learning process. As cited by Diane Tucker 2009, there are three
points as contributions to the success of systems approach models, namely, 1 the focus, at the outset, on what the learner is to know or be able to do when the
instruction is concluded, 2 instruction is specifically targeted on the skills and knowledge to be taught and supplies the appropriate conditions for the learning of
these outcomes, 3 the system approach is an empirical and replicable process. To cover the previous definition, the writer chose two instructional design models that
will be discussed in this section, namely: Dick and Carey‟s model and Yalden‟s Model. Each model would be explained in the following subsections.
a. Dick and Carey’s Model
The Dick and Carey System Approach, bears the conventional core elements of analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation Dick, Carey
Carey, 2005. There are ten procedural steps based on The Dick and Carey System Approach in designing an instructional material. They are 1 assess needs to identify
learning goals, 2 conduct instructional analysis, 3 analyze learners and contexts, 4 write performance objectives, 5 develop assessment instruments, 6 develop
instructional strategies, 7 develop and select instructional materials, 8 design and conduct formative evaluation, 9 revise instruction based from formative evaluation,
10 design and conduct summative evaluation Dick, Carey Carey, 2005. The steps are arranged systematically as seen in Figure 2.1
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Figure 2.1 Dick, W., Carey, L., Carey, J. O. 2005. The systematic design of instruction 6th ed..
Dick Carey 2005: 6-8 described the steps briefly in sequence below. Step 1: Identify Instructional Goal s
The first step in Dick and Carey‟s model is determination on what the
designer wants learners to be able to do when they have completed the instruction. The instructional goal here can be derived from a list of goals, from a performance
analysis, from a needs assessment, from practical experience with learning difficulties of students, from the analysis of people who are doing the job, or from some other
requirements for a new instruction. Step 2: Conduct Instructional Analysis
After doing the first step, Dick and Carey proposed the next step to determine step-by-step to perform that goal. This step was ended by the process of analyzing the
Conduct Instructional
Analysis Identify
Instructional Goal s
Analysis Learners and
Context Write
Performance Objectives
Revise Instruction
Development Assesments
Instruments Develop and
Select Instructional
Materials Design and
Conduct Formative
Evaluation of Instruction
Design and Conduct
Summative Evaluation
Develop Instructional
Strategy
Step 1 Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
Step 5 Step 9
Step 6 Step 7
Step 8
Step 10
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