An Analysis Of Grammatical Unit Shifts In The Translation Of Agatha Christie’s “Why Didn’t They Ask Evans” Into “Pembunuh Di Balik Kabut” By Mareta

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AN ANALYSIS OF GRAMMATICAL UNIT SHIFTS IN THE TRANSLATION OF AGATHA CHRISTIE’S “WHY DIDN’T THEY ASK

EVANS” INTO “PEMBUNUH DI BALIK KABUT” BY MARETA

A THESIS

BY:

SISKA OKTARIA GINTING 040705018

UNIVERSITY OF SUMATERA UTARA FACULTY OF LETTERS

ENGLISH DEPARTMENT MEDAN

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ABSTRAK

Skripsi ini berjudul An Analysis of Grammatical Unit Shifts in the Translation of Agatha Christie’s “Why Didn’t They Ask Evans” into “Pembunuh di Balik Kabut” by Mareta, yaitu suatu analisis tentang pergeseran-pergeseran unit gramatika yang terjadi dalam penerjemahan teks bahasa sumber (bahasa Inggris) dari sebuah novel karya penulis wanita terkenal yang berasal dari Inggris yaitu Agatha Christie yang berjudul “Why Didn’t They Ask Evans” yang diterjemahkan ke dalam bahasa Indonesia menjadi “Pembunuh di Balik Kabut” oleh Mareta. Melalui dua novel ini, penulis menganalisis pergeseran unit gramatika pada lima tingkatan (tataran), yaitu: morfem, kata, frase, klausa, dan kalimat berdasarkan teori Catford tentang pergeseran unit dalam terjemahan. Dari tataran morfem, pergeseran dapat menuju ke unit lain dengan tataran yang lebih tinggi seperti tataran kata dan frase. Dari tataran kata dapat bergeser ke tataran yang lebih rendah yaitu morfem, serta ke tataran yang lebih tinggi seperti frase, klausa, dan kalimat. Dari tataran frase ke tataran yang lebih rendah seperti kata dan ke tataran yang lebih tinggi seperti klausa dan kalimat. Dari tataran klausa ke tataran yang lebih rendah seperti frase dan kata, serta ke tataran yang lebih tinggi yaitu kalimat. Dan dari tataran kalimat ke tataran yang lebih rendah seperti klausa, frase dan kata. Pergeseran unit tersebut terjadi karena bahasa Inggris dan bahasa Indonesia mempunyai struktur bahasa yang berbeda. Pergeseran tersebut harus dilakukan penerjemah sebagai upaya mencari kesepadanan guna mencapai hasil penerjemahan yang wajar dan idiomatis. Metode deskriptif kuantitatif yang dipakai dalam menganalisa kedua novel ini menggunakan rumus perhitungan Bungin yang sebagai hasilnya akan tampak dalam tabel frekuensi pergeseran unit gramatika dalam bentuk persen. Dari hasil analisis tersebut dapat disimpulkan bahwa proses pergeseran dari tataran frase ke tataran lain menduduki posisi pertama atau yang paling sering terjadi 44,2%, disusul dengan pergeseran pada tataran kata dengan 31,9%, kemudian pergeseran pada tataran klausa dengan persentase 15,4 %, dilanjutkan dengan pergeseran pada tataran morfem dengan 5,1 %, dan yang terakhir pergeseran pada tataran kalimat dengan 3,4 %.

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ABBREVIATIONS SL : Source Language

TL : Target Language ST : Source Text TT : Target Text

WDTAE : Why Didn’t They Ask Evans PDK : Pembunuh Dibalik Kabut

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS... i

ABSTRACT ... ii

ABBREVIATIONS... iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... iv

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Analysis ... 1

1.2 Problem of the Analysis ... 4

1.3 Objective of the Analysis ... 5

1.4 Scope of the Analysis ... 5

1.5 Significance of the Analysis... 5

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 The Understanding of Translation... 6

2.1.1 The Definition of Translation... 6

2.1.2 The Kinds of Translation... 9

2.1.3 The Function of Translation ... 12

2.1.4 The Process of Translation ... 13

2.1.5 The Shifts in Translation ... 18

2.2 The Grammatical Units of English and Bahasa Indonesia... 21

2.2.1 The Grammatical Units of English 2.2.1.1 Morpheme ... 23

2.2.1.2 Word... 24

2.2.1.3 Phrase ... 28

2.2.1.4 Clause ... 31

2.2.1.5 Sentence ... 33

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2.2.2.1 Morfem (Morpheme) ... 34

2.2.2.2 Kata (Word) ... 35

2.2.2.3 Frase (Phrase) ... 41

2.2.2.4 Klausa (Clause)... 43

2.2.2.5 Kalimat (Sentence) ... 43

2.3 Related Studies ... 44

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Research Method... 47

3.2 Population and Sample... 47

3.3 Data Collecting Method ... 48

3.4 Data Analysis Method ... 48

CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA 4.1 Shifts from Morpheme Unit in English to the Other Units in Bahasa Indonesia... 50

4.2 Shifts from Word Unit in English to the Other Units in Bahasa Indonesia... 54

4.3 Shifts from Phrase Unit in English to the Other Units in Bahasa Indonesia... 58

4.4 Shifts from Clause Unit in English to the Other Units in Bahasa Indonesia... 63

4.5 Shifts from Sentence Unit in English to the Other Units in Bahasa Indonesia... 68

CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 4.1 Conclusions ... 72

4.2 Suggestions ... 73

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ABSTRAK

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Analysis

There are some acceptable definitions which describe what translation is. Hornby (2000: 1382) defines that translation is the process of changing something that is written or spoken into another language while Hartley (1982:186) says that translation can never be more than approximation to the original message and Larson (1984:1) explains that translation is basically a change of form.

From the three definitions above we may conclude that translation is a process of changing the form of the source language into the target language as well as possible so that the final result will approximate the form of the source language while the meaning is constant. That is why translation is not an easy process. To do this process well needs a qualified translator who knows both the target language (TL) and the source language (SL). The translator must be able to transform the structure of SL to the appropriate structure of TL. Finlay (in Simatupang, 1999:20) stated, “Ideally, a translation should have a sense of the original in such a way that the reader is unaware that he is reading a translation.” It means that a translator should make a reader of the translation not feel that he is reading a translation.

Since there are no two languages are identical, either in the meaning or in the structures (Nida 1964) (in Venuti 200:126) it can be said that there can be no absolute correspondence between languages. As Baker (1992:86) stated that differences in the grammatical structures of the source and target languages often result some changes in the information contained the message during the process

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of translation. It means there can be no fully exact translations. The maximum result of a translation may be reasonably close to the original, but there can be no identical in detail. However, a translator is hoped to be able to adjust the structure of SL to the appropriate structure in TL and to produce a natural translation which communicate as much as possible to the TL that was understood by the speakers of the SL.

Bahasa Indonesia and English have different grammatical structure. This fact causes some difficulties for translators to find the same equivalent and the exact structure in TL, in their effort to convey the message from SL to TL. Such condition forces the translator to shift from one unit to the other unit in the grammatical hierarchy so that the translation could be natural and communicative. As Catford (1965:20) stated that when the two concepts diverge, a translation shift is deemed to have occurred.

Grammar is a description of the structure of a language and the way in which linguistic unit, such as words and phrases are combined to produce sentences in the language (Richards 1985:125). English grammar has units; they are sentence, clause, phrase, word and morpheme. Bahasa Indonesia grammar also has units; they are morpheme, word, phrase, clause and sentence. As what Machali (2000:20) says, “Dalam tata bahasa, kita mengenali adanya hierarki lima satuan bahasa: kalimat, klausa, frase, kata, dan morfem”. (Bahasa Indonesia grammar has units; they are sentence, clause, phrase, word and morpheme.) The lowest level of the grammatical units is called morpheme, it is the smallest meaningful unit in a language. After the morpheme is word, and then phrase, and above the phrase is clause and then at the highest level is sentence.

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Since English and Bahasa Indonesia have different structures, it is very possible that a unit at one level in the SL is shifted to a unit at different level in the TL. For example, the word-level in SL must be translated to the clause-level in TL, or vice versa. The shifts may occur either up or down level. It means an SL unit can be substituted either by a higher or lower level in TL unit. Such shifts are known as grammatical unit shift.

Grammatical unit shift is one of the translation procedures which is introduced by Catford. Catford (1965: 79) stated that by unit shift we mean changes of rank that is departures from formal correspondence in which the translation equivalent of a unit at one rank in the SL is a unit at a different rank in the TL. For example: these days is translated into sekarang (from phrase to word). The grammatical unit shifts are done because an idea or expression which is usually conveyed in word level in SL, for example, must be conveyed in phrase level in TL or vice versa. If the translator does not do the shifts, then he/she preserves the form of the SL, the result of the translation might not be good, rigid/inflexible and make the readers confused or even the translation would lead them to the wrong understanding.

The fact that the translator faces the condition that forces him/her to make shifts, especially shift in the grammatical units or hierarchy units of language to keep the meaning constant so that the message can be conveyed naturally and communicatively makes the writer interested in analyzing the grammatical unit shift which usually occurs in the translation from English into Bahasa Indonesia.

The writer found some grammatical unit shifts from the novel of Agatha Christie’s Why Didn’t They Ask Evans? into Mareta’s Pembunuh di Balik Kabut.

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For examples:

 Shifts from morpheme unit to word unit ST: Bobby could not see him clearly.

TT: Bobby tidak bisa melihat dia dengan jelas.

The bound morpheme ly- in clearly is translated with the word dengan. It means that there has been unit shift in the grammatical level, that is the bound morpheme level in English becomes the word level in Bahasa Indonesia.

 Shifts from word unit to phrase unit ST: “You got a warrant?”

TT: “Kau punya surat perintah?”

The noun word warrant does not have the same equivalence in Bahasa Indonesia (the equivalence which is also the word level). So, it must be explained by using the noun phrase in Bahasa Indonesia., i.e., surat perintah. It means there has been unit shift from word level in English to the phrase level in Bahasa Indonesia. This fact makes the writer interested in analyzing the grammatical unit shifts occur in the translation of the novel “Why Didn’t They Ask Evans” to “Pembunuh di Balik Kabut”.

Problem of the Analysis

The problems of this analysis are:

1. How are grammatical unit shifts in Agatha Christie’s novel “Why Didn’t They Ask Evans” translated to “Pembunuh di Balik Kabut”?

2. What is the frequency of each unit of the grammatical unit shifts found in Agatha Christie’s novel “Why Didn’t They Ask Evans” to “Pembunuh di Balik Kabut”?

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1.3 Objective of the Analysis

The objectives of this analysis are:

1. To analyze the grammatical unit shifts in the translations of Agatha Christie’s novel “Why Didn’t They Ask Evans” to “Pembunuh di Balik Kabut”.

2. To find out the frequency of each unit of the grammatical unit shifts in Agatha Christie’s novel “Why Didn’t They Ask Evans” and its translation “Pembunuh di Balik Kabut”.

1.4 Significance of the Analysis

The analysis has significance to expand knowledge of the readers, especially for those who are interested in this subject. Besides that, the result of this analysis will be useful for teaching and training of translation. Further, this analysis is expected to be useful as reference for those who are interested in the same subject.

1.5 Scope of the Analysis

In this thesis, the writer would like to discuss about the grammatical units shift found in the translation of Agatha Christie’s novel “Why Didn’t They Ask Evans” to “Pembunuh di Balik Kabut” which is translated by Mareta. The analysis of the data is based on the hierarchy of five units of grammar, i.e. from the morpheme, word, phrase, clause until the sentence level.

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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 The Understanding of Translation

This thesis talks about the grammatical unit shifts in a translation work in the case of the translation from English to Bahasa Indonesia, so the writer wants to explain about translation in brief first.

2.1.1 Definition of Translation

According to Manser (1996:441), translation is the activity of changing something spoken or written into another language. It means that whatever we are doing with something (e.g. information, idea), when changed into another language is called translation. Next we will see some other definitions stated by some linguists.

Nida and Taber (1974 : 12) state that translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language (RL) the closest natural equivalent of the source language (SL) message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style. Here, we know that in reproducing the message there is a good relationship between RL and SL that should be equivalent.

Catford (1965:1) defines that translation is an operation performed on languages: a process of substituting a text in one language for a text in another. The writer assumes that all of the activities of transferring a text from one language to another are called translation.

Larson (1984:1) states that translation consists of studying the lexicon, grammatical structure, communication situation, and cultural context of the SL

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text, analyzing it in order to determine its meaning, then reconstructing the same meaning using the lexicon and grammatical structure which appropriate in the RL and its cultural context. Larson also says that translation has three steps; they are studying the source text, analyzing it and reconstructing the meaning.

Newmark (1988:28) says that translation is rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. In short, the meaning of a text should be the same with the author’s aim when it is translated.

Yusuf (1994 :8) says that “terjemahan dapat diartikan sebagai semua kegiatan manusia dalam mengalihkan seperangkat informasi atau pesan baik verbal maupun non-verbal- dari informasi asal atau informasi sumber ke dalam informasi sasaran” (translation can be defined as all of human activities in transferring information or message-verbal or non-verbal- from original information into target information). It means that when we transfer information from one source to another then we do translation.

Simatupang (1999:2) defines translation as “menerjemah adalah mengalihkan makna yang terdapat dalam bahasa sumber ke dalam bahasa sasaran dan mewujudkannya kembali di dalam bahasa sasaran dengan bentuk-bentuk sewajar mungkin menurut aturan-aturan yang berlaku dalam bahasa sasaran” (translating is transferring the meaning of SL into RL and rewaken it in RL with natural forms that follow the valid rules in RL). It means that translation is closer to the meaning than the style (form) but translation should follow the rules of target language.

From the definitions above, the writer may say that translation is defined as the process of transferring the idea or information from the source language to

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the target language. For instance, when a teacher explains his idea to the students, he does a translation activity, i.e. he transfers the idea (the material of the lessons) from his mind to the students by using language that can be understood by them. In short, in wider meaning translation is the process of transferring the meaning of the idea, verbally and non-verbally from one to another.

The RL reader’s response to the translation work has to be the same with the SL reader’s response to the original text itself. Actually, the response of the SL and the RL readers will never be identical because the difference in both readers (cultural and historical settings). The following example shows how a translation work makes the different response we put our head together. If the sentence is translated into Bahasa Indonesia as kami meletakkan kepala kami bersama-sama, the response or idea is different from English. In other words, the response of the English people and Indonesian people is not the same. The response or understanding will be the same if it is translated as bermusyawarah. The same response between the source and receptor readers can reach the goal if the message expressed as natural as possible in the RL.

From all of the explanations above, the writer assumes that there are four important elements in translation. They are: source language, text, equivalence, and receptor language. Source language is the original language of a work that is used by its author to assert his idea. Text is the material of a work that will be translated. Equivalence is the suitable form whether in meaning and style. While receptor language is the aim language that has been translated from the SL.

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2.1.2 The Kinds of Translation

Many linguists make the divisions on translation. Catford divides some broad types or categories of translation in terms of the extent, levels, and rank of translation. Below the writer explains them one by one.

a. In Terms of the Extent

The extent type relates to full versus partial translation. In full translation, the entire text is submitted to the translation process that is every part of the SL text is replaced by RL text material.

In partial translation, some parts of the SL text are left no translated; they are simply transferred to and incorporated in the RL text. So, not all of the text is translated.

There are some reasons why some parts of SL text cannot be translated. First, the vocabularies in SL cannot be found or cannot be translated correctly in RL. For example: the Indonesian word “nasi tumpeng” canot be translated into English because “nasi tumpeng” is not found in English. Second, the vocabularies, in the SL have no translation equivalence in RL. For example: the word “television” in English becomes “televisi” when translated to Indonesia. It happened because Bahasa Indonesia has no translation equivalence with that word. In this case, there is a loan translation i.e. the using of SL’s element in RL by changing the phonological and morphological structure. And a text may thus be a whole library of books, a single volume, a chapter, a paragraph, a sentence, a clause, a phrase, a word, and a morpheme.

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b. In Terms of the Levels

According to Catford (1965: 22), the levels type relates to total versus restricted translation of language that involved in translation. Total translation can be defined as the replacement of SL grammar and lexis by equivalent RL grammar and lexis with consequential replacement of SL phonology/ graphology by non-equivalent RL phonology/graphology. Whereas restricted translation means replacement of SL textual material by equivalent RL textual material, at only one level, that is translation performed only at the phonological or at the graphonological level, or at only one of the two levels of grammar and lexis.

c. In Terms of the Rank

The rank type relates to the rank of translation in grammatical (or phonological) hierarchy at which translation equivalence is established. Here, Catford (1965:25) divides this type into three distinctions. They are: Free Translation, Word-for word Translation, and Literal Translation.

Free translation is always “unbounded-equivalences shunt up and down the rank scale, but tend to be at the higher ranks-sometimes between target units than the sentences”. It reproduces the matter without the manner, or the content without the form of the original. It is usually a paraphrase much longer than the original. It is also called as ‘intralingual translation’.

Word-for-word Translation generally means what its say: i.e. is essentially rank bound at word-rank (but may include some morpheme equivalences). In this type the words of the SL text are rendered one by one into the RL without making

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allowance for grammatical or lexical difference between them. This type is usually used in case of translating poems.

Literal Translation lies between these extremes; it may start, as it were, from a word-for-word translation, but make changes in conformity with RL grammar (e.g. inserting additional words, changing structures at any rank, etc); this may make it a group-group or clause-clause translation. This type is usually used if the structure of SL is different with the structure of RL. Below is the example of the three distinctions (English-Bahasa Indonesia).

SL text: Her mouth is parch

RL text: 1. Mulutnya kering (Word-for-word translation) 2. Mulut perempuan itu kering (Literal translation) 3. Dia haus (Free translation)

After explaining the Catford’s type translation, the writer wants to explain the other types that are made by another linguist. Larson (1984: 15) says that there are two main kinds of translations. They are: Form-based Translation and Meaning-based Translation.

a. Form-based Translation

Form-based translation attempts to follow the form of the SL. It is also known as literal translation. Literal translation will cause meaningfulness if SL and RL have different forms.

For example : SL: Dimana sekolahmu? (Indonesian) RL: Where School-your? (Literal English)

The translation above sounds nonsense. The good translation of it should be where is your school? So, the form-based translation will be possible if the SL

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and RL are related (have similar forms). However, it still causes a problem, the literal choice of lexical-items makes the translation sounds strange. Actually, this type has little communication value and also it has little help to the readers of the RL. Because it only can be understood when the structure of the two languages may be similar generally. This type may be very useful for purposes related to the study of the SL.

b. Meaning-based Translation

Meaning-based translation communicates the meaning of SL text in the natural forms of the RL. It is usually called as idiomatic translation. An idiomatic translation does not sound like a translation but it like a text written in the RL originally.

For example : SL: The business is dead this year. (Literal English) RL: Bisnis itu lagi sepi tahun ini. (Idiomatic Indonesian)

2.1.3 The Function of Translation

Translation plays an important function as an interlingual communication activity in developing country to get the information and technology. Reiss in Venutti (2000: 160) states “Interlingual translation (translation between two different languages) is a bilingual mediated process of communication, which usually aims at the production of a target language text that is functionally equivalent to source language text”. One clear statement is expressed by Levy in Venutti (2000: 148). He states “…Translation is a process of communication: the objective of translating is to impart the knowledge of the original to the foreign reader.”

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Duff (1989: 5) states “As a process of communication, translation functions as the medium ‘across the linguistic and cultural barriers’ in conveying the messages written in the foreign languages”. It functions as a bridge to carry the messages (meanings) from the SL to the RL. This function is very useful for someone who faces a foreign-language barrier when he/she wants to know the meaning or content of the foreign language text. In other words, the language of the original text is the barrier for him/her to know the content of the text. This problem can only be overcome by translation which functions as the medium between SL and RL.

2.1.4 The Process of Translation

As a process of interlingual communication, translation transfers the meaning from SL idea into RL idea. It means that translation involves two different languages. This process begins by analyzing the source text into grammatical and semantic structure of the SL, transferring the meaning and at last by reconstructing the grammatical and semantic structure into the appropriate RL forms in order to create an equivalent RL text.

However, the process of translation mentioned above is a very general way of looking at the translation procedure. Translation procedure is actually more difficult and complicated than such an overview might indicate. Larson

(1984:476-490) divides the process of translation into 8 steps. They are: a. Preparation, b. Analysis, c. Transfer, d. Initial Draft, e. Reworking the Initial

Draft, f. Testing the Translation, g. Polishing the Translation, and h. Preparing the Manuscript for the Publisher.

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a. Preparation

There are two kinds of preparation that has to be done by translator. The first is the preparation before beginning the translation task. It includes training in writing, in linguistics and in translation principles. In this preparation, a translator must have training in writing the RL, then he has to study linguistics so that he can discover the features of the RL which indicate the groupings, cohesion, and prominence in that language. Finally he has to study the principles in doing a translation work.

The second preparation is the preparation which the translator undertakes as he begins work on a specific translation project. It means that the translator begins to do preparation related to the text to be translated. In order to be able to understand the message intended by the author, the translator should read the text through several times and mark any section which seems unclear. Then he/she studies the background material which is available. It can be done by doing the same steps such as finding out about the author, about the circumstances of the writing of the text, about the purpose for which it was written, about the culture of the source text, whom the text was written for, and about the study of linguistic matters related to the text. For example: if a text is about historical, the background material should be a study of the period of history in which the events took place and in which the text was written.

The last thing that should be done by the translator in preparation is reading and rereading of the text. He will make notes (about key terms, obscure sections). Finally, when he fells acquainted with the text he is ready to do analysis.

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b. Analysis

In this process, the translator should study the key words of the text carefully. It aims to find a natural lexical equivalent in RL and it can be done by consulting dictionaries and encyclopedias.

It is important to divide the text into smaller units, and work one of these at a time if the text is very long. The smaller units division can be a section or a chapter. Therefore it is necessary for the translator to study the groupings of the text. He must give a special attention to identify the opening and closing of the text. He also needs to note the relations between various units, discover what the cohesive divides used are indicating and also identify the units which are most prominent.

Even though the analysis begins with the smaller unit and moves up to the whole discourse, the actual analytical process is the opposite. Commonly, the translator analyzes the larger unit first, identifying the units and the relation between the units, deciding which are more prominent. Then he/she moves down to the smaller ones. Though he does that way, but also be constantly moving back to look at the larger units and to reevaluate his analysis on the basis of the analysis of smaller units. The more difficult the text, the more need there will be for a careful rewrite into semantic structure before any transfer is begun.

c. Transfer

Transfer is the process of going from the semantics structure to the initial draft of the translation. This process takes place in the mind of the translator. The semantic analysis will have eliminated most of the skewing between the deep and surface structure of the source text. In this process, the translator produces a RL

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equivalent. It is done by finding the good lexical equivalence for concepts and the culture of SL; deciding whether some adjustment are needed or not; considering what grammatical forms to use best communicates the correct meaning, and considering how to signal cohesion and prominence. The transfer process can be very difficult without an adequate study on translation principles. And the results can also be unsatisfactory. The transfer process will result in an initial draft. d. Initial Draft

The translator begins making his initial draft after moving back and forth from the source to the receptor text. He may need to go back for more background reading and check again in the dictionary. In this process, the translator should be working at paragraph level. He must be sure of what the paragraph communicates, then he composes the draft naturally, without looking at the SL or even the semantic rewrite. He should just let it flow naturally and expressing the meaning clearly. The translator will not find difficulty in expressing the meaning in the RL if the analysis has done well.

There are a number of things which the translator should remember when he does this process. He should know who will use the translation, their level of education. He should know about the author’s purpose, about topic of the paragraph, about semantic structure analysis. If the numbers of things are combinated, the initial draft will be accurate and natural.

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e. Reworking the Initial Draft

The reworking the initial draft checks for naturalness and for accuracy. The first thing that the translator will do is to read through the manuscript of larger unit that he is checking. In doing this, he should be looking for:

 Wrong grammatical forms or obscure constructions  Places that seem too wordy

 Wrong order, awkward phrasing

 Places where the connections do not seem right and it does not flow easily  Collocation clashes

 Questionable meaning  Style

The second thing is checking for accuracy of meaning. The translator compares the source text and the semantic analysis carefully. He also looks at the meaning of words, the sentences, and the relations between the sentences and the paragraphs and larger units. The third thing is checking whether the theme comes through clearly or not.

f. Testing the Translation

There are three main reasons in doing testing the translations; they are accurate, clear, and natural. In order to make the translation as accurate, clear, and natural as possible, the translation must involve at least four persons. They are: translator, consultant, tester, and reviewer. The translator will do self-checks by making a comprehension testing. He asks people to read the translation whether they understand or not. He also does the naturalness checking by comparing his translation with the RL text. The consultant helps the translation in inaccuracies

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and correcting use of translation principles. He can train the translator in how to do other kinds of testing. He also encourages the translator throughout the project. A consultant can often help with difficult exegetical questions. The tester tests the translation with people whether the source text is familiar or not. The reviewer reads through the translation and makes comments concerning clarity and naturalness.

g. Polishing the Translation

After doing all the steps above, the translator needs to polish the translation. He needs to know whether he makes an adequate translation or not. h. Preparing the Manuscript for the Publisher

In this last step, the translator checks the translation by having it tested over and over again until he is sure that there is no any missing information from the source text.

2.1.5 The Shifts in Translation

Every translator will always attempt to transfer all the messages from SL to TL. In doing this, a translator should determine the form and content of the SL text and then reconstruct the same content (meaning) using the forms that are appropriate in the TL (Larson, 1984: 3). But, in his/her attempt to transfer the message/content from one language (SL) to another (TL) by means of the universally known practice of translation, the translator usually faces the difficulties in finding the same equivalent and the exact structure (form) in TL. It is because language has its own genius and possesses certain distinctive characteristics that give it a special character, such as a word-building capacities,

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unique patterns of phrase order, techniques for linking clause into sentences, etc. (Nida and Taber, 1974:4). In this case, the translator should be able to adjust the structure of the translation in accordance with the rules and grammar of the TL.

In adjusting the structure of the language, the translator is sometimes forced to make some changes or shifts in the translation. Say for example, something conveyed properly and naturally in one language might not be properly conveyed in another by using the same structure; it is because every language has different systems. This is where shifts need to be done in order to produce natural translation. Thus, the occurrence of shifts in any translation activity is an unavoidable phenomenon. Therefore, ‘shift’ should be redefined positively as the consequence of the translator’s effort to establish translation equivalence between different language systems.

Catford (1965 :73) states that by ‘shifts’ we mean departures from formal correspondence in the process of going from the SL to the TL. There are two major types of ‘shift’. They are level shifts and category shifts.

A.Category Shift

Catford (1965: 76) states that category shifts, which are departures from formal correspondence in translation, consist of structure-shift, class shift, unit shift (rank-changes), and intra system-shift.

a. Structure Shift

Catford (1965:77) states that a structure shift involves a change in grammatical structure between the source language and the target language.

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b.Class Shift

Catford (1965: 78) states that class shift occurs when the translation equivalent of a SL item is a member of a different class from the original item.

SL: The neighbours were hostile to the family. Adjective

TL: Para tetangga memusuhi keluarga tersebut. Verb

c.Unit Shift

Catford (1965 : 79) states that by unit-shift we mean changes of rank-that is, departures from formal correspondence in which the translation equivalent of a unit at one rank in the SL is a unit at a different rank in the TL.

Example: These days translated into sekarang (from phrase to word). d.Intra-system shift

Catford (1965: 80) uses the term intra-system shift for those cases where the shift occurs internally, within a system; that is for those cases where SL and TL posssess systems which approximately correspond formally as to their constitution, but when the translation involves selection of a non-corresponding term in the TL system.

For example: Cans translated into kaleng-kaleng.

Plural word in English may be translated into reduplication in Indonesian language.

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B. Level Shift

Catford (1965: 73) states that by a shift of level we mean that a SL item at one linguistic level has a TL translation equivalent at a different level.

Meanwhile, according to Peter Newmark (1988: 85), a ‘shift’ (Catford’s term) or ‘transposition’ (Vinay and Darbelnet) is a translation procedure involving a change in the grammar from SL to TL. Transposition is the only translation procedure concerned with grammar, and most translators make transpositions intuitively.

One type, the change from singular to plural, e.g. ‘furniture’; des meubles; ‘applause’, des applaudissements; ‘advice’, des conseils; or in the position of the adjective: la maison blanche, ‘the white house’ is automatic and offers the translator no choice. A second type of shift is required when an SL grammatical structure does not exist in the TL. Here there are always options. The third type of shift is the one where literal translation is grammatically possible but may not accord with natural usage in the TL. The fourth type of transposition is the replacement of a virtual lexical gap by a grammatical structure.

2.2 The Grammatical Units of English and Bahasa Indonesia

Unit means an extend of language activity which is the carrier of a pattern of a particular kind. English grammar has units such as sentence, clause, phrase, word, and morpheme. Each of these is the carrier of a particular kind of meaningful grammatical pattern. The grammatical units operate in hierarchies, the larger units being made up of the smaller units, and from a scale of units at different ranks/levels (Catford, 1965: 5-6).

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Both English and Bahasa Indonesia grammar set up a hierarchy of five units, they are: morpheme, word, phrase, clause, and sentence. As what Machali(2000:20) says “dalam tata bahasa kita mengenali adanya hierarki lima satuan bahasa: (1)kalimat; (2)klausa; (3)frase; (4)kata; (5)morfem. “The highest level is the sentence and the lowest one is the morpheme. The sentence is a unit of higher level than the clause; the clause is a unit of higher level than the phrase; the phrase is a unit of higher level than the word; the word is a unit of the higher level than the morpheme. In other words, every sentence contains at least one clause; each clause is made of at least one phrase; each phrase contains at least one word; every word contains at least one morpheme.

Each level from the lowest one forms the higher level of grammatical unit. In other words, the higher level of grammatical unit consists of elements from the lower level of grammatical unit. For instance, the morphemes hunt and er from a higher grammatical level to be hunter (a word). A phrase white house consists of two words, i.e. white and house. Thus, it can be said that the higher grammatical unit can be analyzed by dividing it into its lower grammatical unit.

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2.2.1 The Grammatical Units of English 2.2.1.1 Morpheme

The word ‘morpheme’ is derived from the Greek word morphe, which means ‘form’. A morpheme (Fromkin and Robert, 1983:114) may be also defined as the minimal linguistic sign, a grammatical unit in which there is an arbitrary union of a sound and a meaning and that can not be further analyzed.

Morpheme can be classified into free and bound forms. Free morpheme is a linguistic form which can be used alone as an independent word. For example: Betty, horse, red, town, and appear. Bound morpheme is a linguistic form which is never used alone but must be used with another morpheme, e.g as an affix. In other words, free morphemes can occur as separate words, but bound morphemes can not occur on their own.

Morphemes cannot be equated with syllables. On the one hand, a single morpheme can have two or more syllables, as in harvest, grammar, river, gorilla, and Indonesia. On the other hand, there are sometimes two or more morphemes in a single syllable, as in judged (judge + -ed), dogs (dog + -s), and men (man + plural), with two morphemes each and men’s, with three morphemes (man + plural + possesive).

Affixes are the bound morphemes which are added to a word which change the meaning/category or the grammatical function of the word. The classes of affixes are the prefix, infix, suffix, simulfix and confix. Prefix is the affix which is added to the beginning of a word. Infix is the affix which is added within a word. Suffix is the affix which is added to the end of a word. The English suffix –s shows the grammatical information of plural: e.g. chair → chairs. Simulfix is

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the affix which functions to build verb. Confix is a pair of morphemes which has one meaning.

English just recognizes three types of affixes: prefixes, suffixes, and confixes. E.g.: prefixes un-(unhappy), il-(illegal), im-(impolite), ex-(exchange); suffixes –fy (codify), -ness(bitterness), -al (instrumental), -er (leader); confixes il- + -al (illogical), in-+ -ion (indecision), im-+ -al (immaterial).

2.2.1.2 Word

A word can be a free morpheme or the combination of morphemes which are considered by the linguists as the smallest unit and can be used as a free (single) form (Kridalaksana, 1996:98). In other words, a word can be a free morpheme or the combination of free and bound morphemes. For example, blue and sky are free which constitute the smallest meaningful unit and can be used as a single (free) form. The word unemployment is an example of a word as the combination of three morphemes, i.e. two bound morphemes un- and -ment and a free morpheme employ.

In the word level, we could find word classes, which are traditionally known as parts of speech. They are: noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction and interjection. Words are differentiated by their function and content. Based on the function words can be classified into seven groups. They are: pronouns, determiners, auxiliaries, qualifiers, prepositions and conjunctions. Whereas if it is based on the content, words are classified into four forms. They are: nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs (Gatherer, 1986: 118).

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1. Noun

Noun is the name of thing, quality, person, and place (Manser; 1996:281). Nouns can be classified into:

A. Common Noun

Common Noun is a name given in common to every person or thing of the same class or kind, for example: girl, boy, book, and city.

Common Nouns can be classified into Collective Nouns and Abstract Nouns. A Collective Noun is the name of a number (collection) of persons or things taken together and spoken of as one whole, for example: crowd, mob, team, flock. An Abstract Noun is usually the name of a quality, action, or state considered apart from the object to which it belongs; for example:

Quality: goodness, holiness, and honesty Action: movement, laughter, and hatred State: poverty, death, and sickness B. Proper Nouns

Proper Noun is the name of some particular person or place. Proper Nouns are always written with a capital letter at the beginning; for example: Jenny, Jakarta, and Indonesia.

2. Pronoun

Pronoun is a word that is used instead of a noun (Manser, 1996:330). It can be divided into:

A. Personal Pronoun

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 Objective form (me, you, us, them, him, her, it)

B. Possesive Pronoun, examples: mine, your, ours, theirs, his, hers, its.

C. Reflexive Pronoun, examples:myself, yourself, ourselves, their selves, himself, herself, itself.

3. Adjective

Adjective is a word that describes noun (Manser; 1996:5). There are some kinds of adjective. They are:

a. Demonstrative : this, that, these, those b. Distributive : each, every

c. Quantitative : some, any, little, much, many

4. Verb

Verb is a word that shows what a person or thing does or is (Manser; 1996:458). Verb can be divided into four forms, namely:

1. Present or Simple Form of the verb such as drink, and talk 2. Past Form of the verb such as drunk, and talked

3. Continuous Form such as drinking, and talking 4. Past Participle such as drank, and talked.

Verbs in English are divided into two parts by the objects. They are transitive verb and intransitive verb. A verb, which needs directly an object, is called transitive verb. Whereas a verb which does not need an object is called intransitive verb.

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5. Adverb

Adverb is a word that adds information to a verb, adjective, phrase, or another adverb (Manser; 1996:6). There are some types of adverbs, they are:

1. Adverb of manner such as quickly, fast, well, etc. 2. Adverb of place such as here, there, etc.

3. Adverb of time such as now, soon, today, yesterday, etc. 4. Adverb of frequency such as always, never, seldom, etc. 5. Adverb of degree such as too, rather, fairly, very, etc.

6. Adverb of affirmation and negation such as certainly, surely, etc. 7. Adverb of reason such as hence, therefore, etc.

6. Preposition

Preposition is word normally placed before noun and pronoun and also can be followed by verb (A.J. Thomson 1986: 91). It can be simple (consists of only one word) and complex (consists more than one word).

Examples: Simple Preposition : at the time, from you, in the house.

Complex Preposition: because of going there, instead of staying here.

7. Conjunction

Conjunction is word that joins words, phrases, or sentences (Manser; 1996:84). It can be divided into:

A. Coordinating Conjunction that joins unit of equal cases. Example: The pen and the pencil (joins the phrases)

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B. Subordinating Conjunction that introduces subordinates adverb or noun clauses and provides information on when, why, or how an event occurred.

Example: The teacher is angry because the student speaks loudly

8. Interjection

Interjection is word that expresses emotion, greeting, and surprise, (Manser; 1996:220). It takes no part of the structure of the sentence. It stands alone.

Examples: Hi! Shalom! Oh! Ouch!

2.2.1.3 Phrase

Phrase is a group of words that lacks either a subject or a predicate or both. Phrase is usually classified into types, depending on the word class of the head (the most important or the most essential word in the phrase). A phrase does not contain a finite verb and does not have a subject predicate structure, for example smart boy, expensive new car, etc.

Based on the central word or head, phrases can be classified into noun phrase, verb phrase, adverb phrase, prepositional phrase, and numeral phrase. Each kind of phrases increases its identity from the word-class of the head word.

1. Nominal Phrase

Nominal phrase is a phrase composed of a head and modifiers that the headword is a noun. The function of Noun Phrase in sentences is as Subject (S),

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Object (O) and Complement (C). On below examples the letter M stands for Modifier and H stands for Headword.

Examples:

a. Two eggs are just enough for me. NP: S M H

b. She bought red shoes yesterday NP: O M H

c. He is a good policeman NP: C M H

2. Adjectival Phrase

Adjectival Phrase is a group of words that does the function of an adjective.

Examples: a. Very slow M H b. Extremely hot

M H

c. Too old M H

3. Adverbial Phrase

Adverbial phrase is a group of words that does the work of an adverb. Example:

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a. Very quickly M H b. So hard M H

c. Rather quietly M H

4. Prepositional Phrase

Prepositional phrase is a group of words that contains no verb and that begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun (the object of the preposition).

Examples:

a. After the show we had dinner. b. A page with no writing on it. c. A boy with blue eyes.

5. Verbal phrase

Verbal phrase contains a verb part that functions not as a verb, but rather as a noun or an adjective. Verbals are either infinitives, present participles, or past participles (non - finite verb forms). As opposed to absolute phrases, verbal phrases modify part of a sentence but not the whole sentence.

Examples:

a. We used the last day of our trip to visit the Berlin zoo [Infinitive phrase modifying]

b. Visiting the Berlin zoo, we were amazed by the beauty of the exotically designed animal enclosures.

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[Present participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying we]

c. The children, amazed by the animal exhibits, didn't want to leave the Berlin zoo.

[Past participial phrase functions as an adjective modifying the children]

2.2.1.4 Clauses

A group of words that forms part of a sentence and has a subject and a predicate of its own is called a clause.

These are clauses: These are not clauses: ecology is a science to protect the environment because pollution causes cancer after working all day

There are two kinds of clauses: independent and dependent. An independent clause contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought. It can stand alone as a sentence by itself. An independent clause is formed with:

subject + verb (complement)

Examples: -Students normally spend four years in college. - Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz.

A dependent clause begins with a subordinator such as when, while, if, that, or who. A dependent clause does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone as a sentence by itself. A dependent clause is formed with:

Subordinator + subject + verb (+complement) Examples: -when they come to Hollywood…

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Based on the function in the sentence, dependent clause can be divided into noun clause, adjective clause, and adverb clause.

Noun clause is a dependent clause which functions like a noun or noun phrase (Richards et al, 1985:192). It is used in the same way that any noun is used. Noun clauses are generally introduced by who, whom, which, that, etc. Noun clauses are used as:

a. Subject of the sentence

Examples: How to make a good presentation will be our topic next week. b. Direct object of the verb

Examples: Do you know what he did to the girl last night. c. Predicate noun

Examples: Your biggest fault was why you let the door unlocked. d. Object of a preposition

Examples: Everything depends on what the director will decide in that meeting. Adjective clause is a dependent clause which functions like adjective and used to modify or describe noun or pronoun and object. Adjective clauses are generally introduced by the conjunction of the clause such as who, whose, that, etc. For example, The boy whose father is a director in that office was arrested by the police yesterday. In this complex sentence, the simple sentence is the boy was arrested by the police yesterday, the adjective clause modifies or describes the subject of the sentence, boy. Another example of the adjective clause that modifies the object of the sentence : She is wearing a skirt which she just bought this morning. The simple sentence of the complex sentence is she is wearing a skirt; the adjective clause describes the object, skirt.

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Adverb clause is a dependent clause which functions as an adverb and used to modify or add the meaning to the verb (predicate) of the complex sentence. It modifies verb from various aspects such as reason, place, time, degree, manner, purpose, etc. For example:

a. She went home because she was sick. (adverb clause of reason) b. It is the office where he works. (adverb clause of place)

c. We arrived before they came. (adverb clause of time)

d. She will come here as soon as she can. (adverb clause of degree) e. They danced as if they were birds. (adverb clause of manner)

f. I woke up early so that I could catch the bus. (adverb clause of purpose)

2.2.1.5 Sentence

Many grammarians define what sentence is. Matthews (1980: 26) in his book Syntax states, “Sentence is a series of words in connected speech or writing, forming the grammatically complete expression of a single thought.” Morever Richard et al (1985: 255) says, “sentence is the largest units of grammatical organization within which parts of speech (e.g. nouns, verbs, adverbs) and grammatical clauses (e.g. word, phrase, clause) are said to function.”

Based on the types, sentence can be classified into:

a. Simple sentence. It contains only one predicate or an independent clause. For example: They bring the money.

b. Compound sentence. It contains two or more independent clause which is joined by conjunction: and, or, but, semi-colon (;), and transition word:

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however, besides, moreover, etc. For example: I’ll either phone you or I’ll send you a letter.

c. Complex sentence. It contains one independent clause and one or more dependent clause in addition to its independent and they are joined by the subordinating conjunction. For example: Everyone is happy because the girl found the dog that had been lost.

d. Compound-complex sentence. It contains two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. For example: Because the work was finished, the workers went to the office and asked for the money they had earned.

2.2.2 The Grammatical Units of Language in Bahasa Indonesia 2.2.2.1 Morfem (morpheme)

Chaer (1994 : 146) states that morfem adalah satuan bentuk bahasa terkecil yang mempunyai makna secara relatif stabil dan tidak dapat dibagi atas bagian bermakna yang lebih kecil (morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language). It consists of:

1. Morfem Bebas (free morpheme)

Yaitu morfem yang secara potensial dapat berdiri sendiri dalam suatu bangun kalimat (morpheme that can stand alone as a word in a sentence)

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2. Morfem Terikat (bound morpheme)

Yaitu morfem yang tidak mempunyai potensi untuk berdiri sendiri dan yang selalu terikat dengan morfem lain untuk membentuk ujaran (morpheme that cannot stand alone as an independent word but must be attached to another morpheme/ word)

Example: berjalan ( the word berjalan consists of two morphemes, i.e. bound morpheme ber- and free morpheme –jalan).

2.2.2.2 Kata (word)

Kata adalah satuan bahasa yang dapat berdiri sendiri, terjadi dari morfem tunggal ataupun gabungan morfem (word is a single unit of a language that can stand alone, that is formed from a single morpheme or more).

According to Kridalaksana (1990: 49-103), there are 12 parts of speech in Bahasa Indonesia. They are: verba, ajektiva, nomina, pronominal, numeralia, adverbial, interogativa, demonstrativa, artikula, preposisi, konjungsi,and interjeksi.

1. Verba (verb)

Verb is a word that expresses an action or state of existence. Verba divided into 2 parts by form. They are: verba dasar bebas and verba turunan.

A. Verba Dasar Bebas (free verb)

Yaitu verba yang berupa morfem dasar bebas (free morpheme). For examples: tidur(sleep), makan(eat), minum(drink).

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B. Verba Turunan (verb that has some processes)

Yaitu verba yang mengalami afiksasi, reduplikasi, and gabungan proses (the verb that gets affixation, reduplication, and combining process).

 verba berafiksasi (affixation) examples: bernyanyi (prefix ber-) ajari (suffix-i)

 verba reduplikasi (reduplication)

examples: makan-makan, jalan-jalan, minum-minum (the verba dasar bebas reduplicates)

 verba berproses gabung (affixation + reduplication)

examples memukul-mukul, berjalan-jalan, bernyanyi-nyanyi (there are reduplication of verba dasar bebas and prefixes me-, ber-)

2. Ajektiva

Ajektiva adalah kata yang memberi keterangan tentang sifat khusus, watak, atau keadaan benda (word that describes noun). It divided into 2 parts. A. Ajektiva dasar Bebas (base adjective)

Examples: bodoh (stupid), besar (big), cemburu(jealous), miskin (poor) B. Ajektiva Turunan (Adjective that has some processes)

 Ajektiva turunan berafiks (adjective that has affixes)

Example: terhormat (prefik ter-follows the adjective hormat)  Ajektiva turunan bereduplikasi (adjective that reduplicates)

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 Ajektiva turunan berasal dari berbagai proses (adjective that comes from some process)

Examples: tertekan (deverbalisasi/ adjective comes from the verb tekan) mendua (denumeralia/ adjective comes from the numeral dua)

3. Nomina (Noun)

Nomina adalah kata yang menyatakan nama benda (word that describes things). It consists of:

A. Nomina Dasar (base noun)

Examples: buku (book), pensil (pencil), cermin (mirror) B. Nomina Turunan (noun that has some processes)

 Nomina berafiks (noun that has affixation)

Example: keuangan (uang exist between prefix ke and suffix-an)  Nomina reduplikasi (noun that has reduplication)

Examples: rumah-rumah, baju-baju (reduplication of nomina dasar)

 Nomina yang berasal dari berbagai proses (noun that comes from some processes)

Example: pemandian (deverbalisasi/ noun comes from the verb mandi)

4. Pronomina (Pronoun)

Pronomina adalah kata yang berfungsi untuk menggantikan nomina (word that used instead of noun). It can be divided into:

A. Pronomina Takrif, yang menggantikan nomina yang refereensinya jelas (pronoun that replaces noun that has clear references). It consists of:

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Pronomina Persona I : saya, aku (singularis); kami, kita (pluralis) Pronomina Persona II : kamu, engkau, anda (singularis); kalian (pluralis) Pronomina Persona III : ia, beliau (singularis); mereka (pluralis)

B. Pronomina Tak Takrif, yang tidak merujuk pada orang atau benda tertentu (pronoun that does not consider to anyone or anything, does not have clear references)

Examples: sesuatu (something), seseorang (someone)

5. Numeralia (Numeral)

Numeralia adalah kata yang dipakai untuk menyatakan jumlah benda (word that used to state the quantity of things). It can be divided into:

A. Numeralia Takrif, yang menyatakan jumlah yang tentu (numeral that considers the certain count)

e.g. numeralia utama (main numeral) : satu (one), dua(two) numeralia tingkat (degree numeral) : kedua (second) numeralia kolektif (collective numeral) : ribuan (thousand)

B. Numeralia Tak Takrif, yang menyatakan jumlah tak tentu (numeral that considers the uncertain count)

Examples: beberapa (some), tiap-tiap (each), semua (all), sebagian (half).

6. Adverbia (Adverb)

Adverbial adalah kata yang memberi keterangan kepada kata kerja atau kata keadaan (word that explain verb or adverb). It can be divided into:

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A. Adverbia Dasar (base adverb)

Examples: selalu (always), pernah (ever), jarang (seldom) B. Adverbia Turunan (adverb that has some processes) Examples: belum-belum, agak-agak (reduplication) terlalu, terlampau (adverb that has prefix ter-)

7. Interogativa (Interrogative)

Interogative adalah kata interogatif yang berfungsi menggantikan sesuatu yang ingin diketahui oleh pembicara (word that replaces something that want to be known by the speaker). There are 3 kinds of interrogative, they are:

A. Interogativa Dasar (base interrogative)

Examples: apa (asking something), kapan (asking time)

B. Interogativa Turunan (interrogative that has some processes) Examples: berapa (has prefix ber-), apa-apaan (has reduplication)

8. Demonstrativa (Demonstrative)

Demonstrativa adalah kata yang berfungsi untuk menunjukkan sesuatu di dalam maupun di luar wacana (word that refers to something). There are two kinds of demonstrative, they are:

A. Demonstrativa Dasar (base demonstrative) Examples: itu (that is), ini (this is)

B. Demonstrativa Turunan (demonstrative that has some processes) Examples: di situ (has prefix di-), di sana-sini (has reduplication)

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9. Artikula (Article)

Artikula adalah kategori yang mendampingi nomina dasar, nomina deverbal, pronominal, verba pasif (word that follows base noun, noun, pronoun, and passive verb). It can be divided into:

A. Artikula yang bertugas untuk mengkhususkan nomina singularis jadi bermakna spesifik (to specify noun).

Examples: si, sang, sri

B. Artikula yang bertugas untuk mengkhususkan suatu kelompok (to specify group of things)

Examples: para, kaum, umat

10. Preposisi (Preposition)

Preposisi adalah kata yang terletak sebelum noun atau pronoun dan berfungsi untuk menyatakan tempat (word that placed before noun or pronoun to show place). It can be divided into:

A. Preposisi Dasar (base preposition) Examples: di, ke, dari

B. Preposisi Turunan (preposition that has some processes)

Examples: sepanjang (deajektiva/ preposition comes from adjective)

11. Konjungsi (Conjunction)

Konjungsi adalah kategori yang menghubungkan bagian-bagian yang setataran maupun tidak setataran (word that relating statements). It is divided into:

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A. Konjungsi Intra-kalimat, yang menghububgkan kata dengan kata, frase dengan fase, atau klausa dengan klausa (word that relates word and word, phrase and phrase, or clause and clause)

Examples: aku dan kamu (word and word), para guru atau para murid (phrase and phrase)

B Konjungsi Ekstra-kalimat, yang menghubungkan kalimat dengan kalimat atau paragraf dengan paragraph (word that relates sentence and sentence or paragraph and paragraph)

Examples: Rosmauli makan nasi kemudian dia pergi ke kampus (sentence and sentence)

12. Interjeksi (Interjection)

Interjeksi adalah kategori yang bertugas mengungkapkan perasaan pembicara (word that used to express speaker’s feeling).

Examples: aduh! (to express illness) ah, yaa! (to express disappointed)

2.2.2.3 Frase (phrase)

Kridalaksana (1984 : 53) states “Frase adalah gabungan dua kata atau lebih yang bersifat non predikatif”. (Phrase is a group of words that does not contain predicate). There are few kinds of phrases:

1. Frase Nominal (noun phrase)

Frase nominal adalah frase yang memiliki distribusi yang sama dengan kata benda (phrase that function as a noun).

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Examples: baju baru (new clothes)

gedung sekolah (school building) musik klasik (classic music)

2. Frase Verbal (verbal phrase)

Frase verbal atau frase golongan V ialah frase yang mempunyai distribusi yang sama dengan kata verbal (phrase that functions as a verb)

Examples: akan pergi (will go)

sudah datang (already come) dapat menyanyi (can sing) 3. Frase Bilangan (numeral phrase)

Frase bilangan ialah frase yang mempunyai distribusi yang sama dengan kata bilangan (phrase that function as a numeral).

Examples: dua buah rumah (two houses) lima botol bir (five bottles beer)

tiga puluh kilogram beras ( thirty kilograms rice) 4. Frase Keterangan (adverbial phrase)

Frase keterangan ialah frase yang mempunyai distribusi yang sama dengan kata keterangan (phrase that function as an adverb).

Examples: kemarin pagi (yesterday) nanti malam (tonight) besok sore (tomorrow)

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5. Frase Depan (prepositional phrase)

Frase depan ialah frase yang terdiri dari kata depan sebagai penanda, diikuti oleh kata atau frase sebagai aksisnya (phrase that always starts with a preposition and functions as a modifier).

Examples: di sebuah rumah (in a house) dari Surabaya (from Surabaya)

2.2.2.4 Klausa (Clause)

Kridalaksana ( 1984: 100) states “Klausa adalah satuan gramatikal yang berupa kelompok kata, sekurang-kurangnya terdiri atas subjek dan predikat dan berpotensi menjadi kalimat”. (Clause is a group of words that forms part of a sentence and has a Subject and a Predicate of its own). Clauses can be classified into two classes:

1. Klausa Bebas (independent clause)

Klausa bebas adalah klausa yang secara potensial dapat menjadi kalimat bebas (clause that may stand alone as a sentence).

Examples: Nenekku masih cantik. (My grandma is still pretty)

Saya bangun pukul enam setiap pagi. (I wake up at six every morning) 2. Klausa Terikat (dependent clause)

Klausa terikat adalah klausa yang tidak dapat berdiri sendiri sebagai kalimat tunggal mandiri, menjadi bagian klausa lain atau bagian dari kalimat majemuk bertingkat (clause that cannot stand alone as a sentence).

Examples: - Rina tidak masuk sekolah ( can stand alone) karena tidak memiliki uang. (cannot stand alone)

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- ketika kami sedang belajar (cannot stand alone) 2.2.2.5 Kalimat (sentence)

Kridalaksana (1984 :83) states “Kalimat adalah satuan bahasa yang mengungkapkan pikiran secara utuh dan telah dibubuhi intonasi atau tanda baca”. (Sentence is a set of words which are tied together and convey an idea begin with a capital letter and end with a full stop).

There are some kinds of sentence, they are: 1. Kalimat Sederhana (Simple sentence)

Kalimat sederhana adalah kalimat yang terdiri dari satu klausa (simple sentence is a sentence which only contains of one clause)

Examples: Dia sedang membaca majalah.(She is reading a magazine) Saya pergi ke sekolah setiap hari. (I go to school everyday)

2. Kalimat Luas (Compound sentence)

Kalimat luas adalah kalimat yang terdiri dari dua klausa atau lebih (sentence which contains two or more clauses)

Examples: Ia mengakui bahwa ia jatuh cinta kepadaku. (He admits that he loves me)

Ia mengunci mobilnya, lalu masuk ke sebuah toko. (He locked his car, then entered the shop)

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2.3 Related Studies

In process of writing this thesis, the writer uses some information supplied in the relevant book, research and thesis. Some of them can be mentioned here as follows:

Haryanti (2006) in “Translation Shifts of Noun in The Old Man And The Sea, A Farewell To Arms, and Their Translation Versions”. Based on the analysis, the findings are as follows: (a) nouns in the two novels are translated into verbs, verb phrases, clauses, adjectives, functional word-nya, nouns, compound nouns, noun phrases, plural nouns into singular, singular nouns into plural nouns, nouns are adopted, and nouns are not translated; (b) the translations are accurate although there are some translation shifts; and (c) there are some differences and similarities of nouns category shifts in the two novels.

Sahrial (2003) in An Analysis of Grammatical Unit Shifts in The Translation of John Grisham’s The Street Lawyer to Pengacara Jalanan presents about translation shifts in grammatical units that consists of shifts in morpheme, words, phrase, clause and sentence. He concludes that grammatical unit shifts in translation occurs because the differences in language systems and grammatical structures between source language to target language and shifts are done for sake of natural translation.

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CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Method

In writing this analysis, the writer applies the library research method. The method is done by reading and studying some books concerned with the topic of the problem.

3.2 Population and Sample

A population is a group of individuals persons, objects, or items from which samples are taken for measurement while a sample is a finite part of a statistical population whose properties are studied to gain information about the whole (Webster, 2003: 966). The data of the analysis are collected from Agatha Christie’s novel “Why Didn’t They Ask Evans” and also from the translation of this novel into bahasa Indonesia “Pembunuh di Balik Kabut” translated by Mareta. The novel Why Didn’t They Ask Evans consists of 361 pages and 35 chapters. The first page starts on page 9, so the exactly number of pages consist of 352 pages. For the sake of efficiency the writer chooses some pages as the sample of the analysis. By using systematic sampling which is introduced by William G. Cochran (1977:205), the samples can be selected by using formula N = nk, where N is number of populations, n is number of samples, and k is interval. Thus, with N = 352, k = 10, the numbers of samples are:

n = k N

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n = 10 352

n = 35.2

n = 35 (rounded off downward)

So, if the first sample is page 9, then the next samples are page 19, 29, 39 …349. The population of this analysis is all sentences that contain shifts in the novel of Agatha Christie’s “Why Didn’t They Ask Evans” and also from the translation of this novel into bahasa Indonesia “Pembunuh di Balik Kabut” translated by Mareta. The sample of this analysis is all sentences that contain shifts in the 35 pages of sample. There are 607 sentences in the 35 samples and there are 410 sentences that contain shifts in the 35 page of samples. 3.3 Data Collecting Method

During the process of collecting data, the writer applied what Dede Oetomo says in Suryanto’s Metode Penelitian Sosial that there are three methods of collecting data, i.e. interview, observation, and analysis on written documents such as quotation, notes, memorandum, publications and official reports, diaries, and written answer to questioner and survey (Suryanto 1995: 186).

Since the data of this analysis are collected from Agatha Christie’s novel “Why Didn’t They Ask Evans” and also from the translation of this novel into bahasa Indonesia “Pembunuh di Balik Kabut” translated by Mareta, the method of collecting the data can be classified into the third method, it is analysis on written documents.

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The writer uses descriptive quantitave method in analyzing the data. Lexy in his book Metodologi Penelitian Kuantitatif (2005:3) states that penelitian kuantitatif mencakup setiap jenis penelitian yang didasarkan atas perhitungan persentase, rata-rata, kuadrat, dan perhitungan statistik lainnya. In the quantitative method the writer calculate the occurrences of unit shifts in each page of sample of the novel in order to find out the frequency of each unit of the grammatical unit shifts in Agatha Christie’s novel “Why Didn’t They Ask Evans” to “Pembunuh di Balik Kabut”.

Besides the quantitative method, the writer also uses descriptive method to analyze the translations of grammatical unit shifts. Lexy in the same book Metodologi Penelitian Kuantitatif (2005:4) states that penelitian deskriptif sebagai prosedur penelitian yang menghasilkan data deskriptif berupa kata-kata tertulis atau lisan dari orang-orang dan perilaku yang diamati.

The steps of the analysis are as follows: 1. Reading the original novel in SL. 2. Reading the translated novel in TL.

3. Deciding and underlining the grammatical units of the ST.

4. Analyzing the equivalence in the translated novel and deciding the grammatical units in higher or lower level of the TT.

5. Classifying the data based on their level in the grammatical units shifts 6. Explaining the grammatical unit shifts (changes of rank/level) of some of

the data which represent the unit shifts for each level.

7. Calculating the occurrences of each unit shift of the grammatical unit shifts by using the formula.

8. Drawing the tables which show the frequency of the grammatical unit shifts for each unit from each page of samples.

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CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF THE DATA

After collecting and analyzing the data taken from the novel “Why Didn’t They Ask Evans” and “Pembunuh di Balik Kabut” , the writer tries to describe the result of the unit shifts from the aspect of grammatical level.

Refer to the method of analysis; the writer uses the descriptive quantitative method. However, the writer describes only some unit shifts of each level, while the others are in the form of table.

4.1 Shifts from Morpheme Unit in English to the Other Units in Bahasa Indonesia

As we know that the unit shifts in the level of morpheme can only occur to the higher level since morpheme is the lowest level in the hierarchy of grammatical units. In translating the novel ““Why Didn’t They Ask Evans” to “Pembunuh di Balik Kabut”, the translators mostly shift the morpheme level to the word level, whereas the shifts from morpheme level to the phrase level are very rare.

1. Bound morpheme unit in ST to word unit in TT

1. ST (WDTAE. 19) : Bobby could not see him very clearly… TT (PDK.14) : Bobby tidak bisa melihat dia dengan jelas… 2. ST (WDTAE. 169): ‘The alternative being,’ said Frankie thoughtfully TT (PDK.146) : “Sebuah alternative,” sela Frankie sambil berpikir 3. ST (WDTAE. 199): Moira was listening attentively

TT (PDK.172) : Moira mendengarkan dengan penuh perhatian. 4. ST (WDTAE. 199): …and tactfully he averted his eyes from her face.

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TT (PDK.172) : …dan dengan bijaksana mengalihkan pandangan matanya dari wajah Moira.

5. ST (WDTAE. 209): It’s a frightfully queer feeling.’

TT (PDK.181) : Ini perasaan yang amat aneh dan sedikit mengerikan.” 6. ST (WDTAE. 269): He told himself repeatedly…

TT (PDK.237) : Dia menenangkan hatinya dengan mengatakan… 7. ST (WDTAE. 279): The proceedings were very tactfully conducted. TT (PDK.246) : Proses pemeriksaan itu dilakukan dengan baik.

8. ST (WDTAE. 289): …and her head nearly collided violently with a battered coal-box.

TT (PDK.255) : …dan kepalanya hampir saja tertumbuk pada keranjang arang yang sudah rusak.

In the above eight sentences of the SL, the bound morpheme –ly in English is translated differently from each sentence into the word dengan (1,3,4,6 and 7), sambil (2), sedikit (5), and saja (8) in bahasa Indonesia. However, those translated sentences are correct since bahasa Indonesia does not have the bound morpheme that can be added to a word to form an adverb as in English.

The bound morpheme ly has different equivalences in bahasa Indonesia like the above translation because it be conformed to the context of the sentence in order to establish the congruence and exact equivalence in making natural translation.

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9. ST (WDTAE. 239) : It’s extraordinary how men like helpless women.

TT (PDK.255) : Aneh ya, kenapa sih laki-laki kok senang wanita yang tak berdaya.

10.ST (WDTAE. 309) : …the impossible had been achieved. TT (PDK.272) : …dan yang tak mungkin telah tercapai.

The English bound morphemes –less (9), and im- (10) in the above ST have the same equivalence in the word tak in bahasa Indonesia to describe negative statement. The unit shifts that occur in this translation are from morpheme unit to word unit.

2. Bound morpheme unit in ST to phrase unit in TT 11. ST (WDTAE. 59) : …and free and irresponsible.

TT (PDK.49) : …cukup bebas dan tak perlu terlalu bertanggung jawab. The bound morpheme –ir which is attached with the word responsible becomes irresponsible in the above ST is translated with the phrase tak perlu terlalu in bahasa Indonesia.

12. ST (WDTAE. 279) : The Bentley swerved dangerously.

TT (PDK.245) : Bentley itu melencong pada posisi yang membahayakan. The bound morpheme –ly in English also can be translated into phrases in bahasa Indonesia that is, pada posisi yang. However, those translated sentence is correct since bahasa Indonesia does not have bound morpheme that can be added to a word (adjective) to form an adverb. So, the unit shift that occurs in this translation is from the morpheme unit to the phrase unit.

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Table A

The Frequency of Unit Shifts from Morpheme Unit to the Other Units Source Text (ST) Target Text (TT)

Morpheme Unit Word Unit Phrase unit No.

Sample

Page Total Page Total Page Total 1 9 1 7 1

2 19 2 15 2 3 29 1 23 1 4 39

5 49

6 59 1 49 1

7 69 1 59 1

8 79 9 89 10 99 11 109 12 119

13 129 2 111 1 111 1

14 139 15 149

16 159 4 138 4 17 169 1 146 1 18 179

19 189 5 164-165 5 20 199 2 172 2 21 209 1 181 1 22 219

23 229

24 239 2 209 2 25 249 1 217-218

26 259 1 227 1

27 269 1 237 1

28 279 3 246 2 245 1

29 289 1 255 1 30 299 2 264 2 31 309 2 272 2 32 319

33 329 34 339 35 349

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4.2 Shifts from Word Unit in English to the Other Units in Bahasa Indonesia The unit shifts in the level of word may occur either in the higher or lower level. The word unit in the SL can be shifted to the other unit in the TL. It can be shifted to the lower level, i.e. morpheme unit, and it can also shifted to the higher levels, such as phrase, clause, and even sentence unit if it is possible.

1. Word unit in ST to bound morpheme unit in TT 1. ST (WDTAE. 189) : Go on.

TT (PDK.165) : Teruskan.

The preposition on in English is translated into suffix –kan in bahasa Indonesia.

2. ST (WDTAE. 189) : I just jump aside in time.

TT (PDK.165) : Aku sempat meloncat pada waktu yang tepat.

The word aside in the ST phrase jump aside has the equivalence of bound morpheme me- in the TT word meloncat.

3. ST (WDTAE. 209) : Go ahead with your plan. TT (PDK.181) : Lanjutkan rencanamu.

The word ahead in the ST phrase go ahead has the equivalence of suffix –kan in bahasa Indonesia.

4. ST (WDTAE. 329) : …and passed through into the hall. TT (PDK.290) : …lalu melewati ruangan besar.

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The word through in the ST phrase passed through has the equivalence of bound morpheme me- in the TT word melewati.

5. ST (WDTAE. 339) : And I looked through four hundred and eighty Evans. TT (PDK.298) : Dan aku mencari empat ratus delapan puluh Evans di

buku.

The word through in the ST phrase looked through has the equivalence of bound morpheme men- in the TT word melewati.

The unit shifts from the word unit to the morpheme unit in the translations above are correct since they can preserve the meaning/message of the ST properly and they sound natural.

2.Word unit in ST to phrase unit in TT

6. ST (WDTAE. 59) : …father gives me an allowance. TT (PDK.49) : …ayah memberiku uang saku. 7. ST (WDTAE. 69) : Then there’s revenge.

TT (PDK.59) : Lalu ada kemungkinan balas dendam.

8. ST (WDTAE. 39) : …and how he himself had driven into the chasm. TT (PDK.30) : …dan bagaimana dia sendiri sampai di tepi jurang. 9. ST (WDTAE. 99) : George Arbutnot did the same and the bed groaned

protestingly.

TT (PDK.85) : George Arbuthnot ikut duduk dan tempat tidur itu berteriak memprotes.

10. ST (WDTAE. 159) : …her eyelids halfly closed.

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Table F

The Frequency of All the Units Occur in the Translation

Types SUM Percentage

Shifts from Morpheme Unit to the Other Units 34 5,1 % Shifts from Word Unit to the Other Units 213 31,9% Shifts from Phrase Unit to the Other Units 295 44,2% Shifts from Clause Unit to the Other Units 103 15,4% Shifts from Sentence Unit to the Other Units 23 3,4%

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CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 5.1 Conclusions

After analyzing the data, the writer can conclude that the unit shifts in the grammatical structure of language occur in translation are very important, this is especially for the interest of the naturalness of the translation. The shifts can be the bridge for establishing translation equivalence between the two different language systems.

There are at least two reasons why the shifts should be done. First, the differences in language systems and grammatical structure. This is because certain expressions of the SL cannot be translated by using the same structure in the TL, so there is no other way except making shifts in the structure. Here, the unit shifts are a must. Second, the unit shifts are done for the sake of naturalness of the translation in which the translator may choose whether to do shifts or not, that means the unit shifts are optional. And this must be kept in mind that there is no exact equivalence, so the unit shifts in translation may cause the translator either to add or to omit information in the TT. This is because of the lack of particular grammatical devices in the TL itself.

Having analyzed the grammatical unit shifts on the translated novel of Agatha Christie’s “Why Didn’t They Ask Evans” into “Pembunuh di Balik Kabut” by Mareta, it can be concluded that there are 34 shifts in the level of morpheme or 5,1% from the total unit shifts of all levels. The unit shifts from the morpheme level to the other levels (the shifts in the level of morpheme) occur only to word level with 29 shifts (85,3%) and to phrase level with 5 shifts

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(14,7%). In the level of word there are 213 shifts (31,9%), 5 shifts (2,3%) to morpheme level, 202 shifts (94,8%) to phrase level, 5 shifts (2,3%) to clause level and 1 shifts (0,5%) to sentence level. Referring to the unit shifts in the level of phrase, there are 295 shifts (15,4%) occur, 284 shifts (96,3%) to word level, 7 shifts (2,4%) to clause level, and 4 shifts (1,3%) to sentence level. There are 103 shifts (15,4%) in the level of clause, with 33 shifts (32%) to word level, 18 shifts (17,5%) to phrase level, and 52 shifts (50,5%) to sentence level. Finally in the level of sentence there are 23 shifts (3,4%) with 10 shifts (43,5%) to word level and 11 shifts (47,8%) to phrase level, and 2 shifts (8,7%) to sentence level.

From the analysis of the data, it can be seen that the unit shifts in the level of phrase is taking the first place in the total of shifts (44,2%). It is because the phrase level can be shifted to the all of grammatical level. Then the unit shifts from the word level to the other levels (the shifts in word level) with (31,9 %). Next the unit shifts in the level of clause with (15,4%), followed by the unit shifts in the level of morpheme with (5,1% )and then the unit shifts in the sentence level with (3,4%).

5.2 Suggestions

Translation is a very important subject for the foreign language learners. It is because when we are studying a language, at the same time we are also translating the language. In order to be able to do natural translation, the unit shifts are very important to be learned since there are no two languages are identical neither the systems nor the grammatical structures.

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For the students of linguistics, the writer invites them to analyze translation as detail as possible. It will become a great contribution to other people who wants to study English. Let’s make translation easier and exciting not boring or frightening experience.

The writer realizes that this analysis about unit shifts is probably far from perfection. Therefore, it still needs further study for completing the analysis by taking the other samples or texts.

In this opportunity the writer welcome some suggestions and constructive critics from the readers for the sake of completeness of this analysis.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Bungin, H.M. Burhan. 2005. Metodologi Penelitian Kuantitatif. Jakarta : Kencana Prenada Media Group.

Catford, J.C. 1965. A Linguistic Theory of Translation. London : Oxford University Press.

Christie, A. 1989. Why Didn’t They Ask Evans?. London: Harper Collins Publishers.

Cochran, William. 1977. Sampling Techniques. Canada: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Duff, Alan. 1989. Translation. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.

Hartley, A.F. 1982. Linguistics for Learner. London: Hannetta Press Ltd.

Haryanti, Dwi. 2006. “Translation Shifts of Noun in The Old Man And The Sea, A Farewell To Arms, and Their Translation Versions”. Accesed at: http://www.accurapid.com/journal/18theory.htm March 20, 2008.

Hornby, A.S. 1975. Guide to Patterns and Usage in English. London : Oxford University Press.

---. 1989. Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Kridalaksana, Harimurti. 1996. Pembentukan Kata dalam Bahasa Indonesia. Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama.

Leonardi, V. 2000. Equivalence in Translation: Between Myth and Reality. Accessed at : http://accurapid.com/journal/14equiv.htm March 20, 2008. Larson, M.L 1984. Meaning-based Translation. Boston: University Press of

America Inc.

Machali, R. 2000. Pedoman Bagi Penerjemah. Jakarta: PT Gramedia.

Manser, Martin H. 1996. Oxford Learner’s Pocket Dictionary. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.

Mareta.2003. Pembunuh di Balik Kabut. Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama. Newmark, Peter. 1988. A Textbook of Translation. Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall

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Nida, Eugene A. and Charles R. Taber. 1974. The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E.J. Brill.

Richards, J. 1985. Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics. London : Longman.

Sahrial, E. 2003. An Analysis of Grammatical Unit Shifts in the Translation of John Grisham’s The Street Lawyer to Pengacara Jalanan (Unpublished Thesis). Medan: Faculty of Letters USU.

Simatupang, Maurits D. S. 1999. Pengantar Teori Terjemahan. Jakarta : Departemen Pendidikan Nasional.

Suyanto, Bambang. 1995. Metode Penelitian Sosial. Surabaya : Airlangga University Press.

Venuti, Lawrence. 2000. The Translation Studies Reader. New York : Routledge. Yusuf, Suhendra. 1994. Teori Terjemah. Bandung: Mandar maju.

Zoubi, M and Ali R.A. 2001. Constructing a Model for Shift Analysis in Translation. Accessed at: http://www.accurapid.com/journal/18theory.htm March 20, 2008.

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