13 Beck 1978 states that intrinsic motivation deals with factors that
encourage certain activities rewarding in and of themselves. Extrinsic motivation refers to the kinds of reinforcement situation in which a person makes a response
and is reinforced for it by external agent para. 144. Hunt states that organism is still intrinsically motivated when the major
needs are absent. Under the low need conditions, organism still displays exploratory behavior, curiosity and manipulatory behaviors as cited in Petri,
1979, p. 315. Meanwhile, Staw defines intrinsic motivation “as the value or pleasure associated with an activity as opposed to the goal toward which activity
is directed”. While extrinsic motivation refers to “the external goals toward which the activity is directed” as cited in Petri, 1979, p. 315.
5. Fear
a. Definition of Fear
Watson states that fear is caused by innate stimuli which can be limited to loud noise, sudden loss of support, and pain as cited in Gray, 1971, p. 11.
According to Beck 1978, “fear is an aversive state of the organism aroused by stimuli that signal a future aversive event” p. 184. Robinson et al. 2004 in
their book entitled Fears, Stress, and Trauma: Helping Children Cope, define fear as affective, cognitive, motoric and physiological response to a perceived threat.
It is a response of a certain object or concept para. 21. In the website of Pediatric Pain, Mineka and Öhman state that “‘fear is a
normal emotional response to a perceived threatening stimulus, and is a common feature of early development’”. Developmental fears are transitory. It means that
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14 they resolve in childhood, but in certain situation fears may continue into
adolescence further, they cause a problem in adulthood as cited in Du, Jaaniste, Champion, and Yap, 2008, “Theories of Fear Acquisition”.
b. Sources of Fear
Hebb points out some sources of fear. Hebb classifies source of fears into three categories. The first is conflict. It includes fears aroused by pain, loud
noise, dead or mutilated body and strange persons or animal. Fear snake or mammals is included in this category. The second is sensory deficit. This
category includes loss of support, darkness, and solitude. In other words it is stated as an absence of customary stimulation. Hebb explains that “this is the
result of familiarity and adaptation to having others around” as cited in Beck, 1978, p. 194. The third category is constitutional disturbances and maturation.
Individuals may have this fear while they are sick because, as Hebb says, the disease produces a nervous system function different from the normal cerebral
activity of the healthy adult. Beck adds that children may have fears as they grow up which represent temporary neural disorganization due to maturational changes
as cited in Beck, 1978, para. 194-195. Du, Jaaniste, Champion, and Yap in the website of Pediatric Pain Letter
divide the pathways of fear acquisition into two broad frameworks related to fear. They are the environmental learning pathways and the non-associative pathways
“Theories of Fear Acquisition”, 2008.
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15 1 The Environmental Learning Pathways
Fears can be learned through one or a combination of the following environment learning pathways.
a Direct Conditioning In this acquisition, a single exposure to characteristics related to an
intensely aversive event can cause a person to remain fearful of those characteristics. It results in excessive fear.
b Vicarious Learning Fear can occur by observing the fear responses of others. Infants can find
emotional information from their caregiver. It is called social referencing. c Negative Information Provision
It is explained that “negative information can increase beliefs about the danger posed by a particular stimulus”. It results in avoidance of certain stimulus
and reduces the chance of correcting the negative information. 2 The Non-Associative Pathways
a Biological Preparedness Biological preparedness deals with fears that are considered to be innate. It
includes fear of heights, strangers, and loud noises. b Genetic Factors
Genetic factors from twin studies are provided as an example. Twin studies find that “the fear response of one twin could be predicted by a co-twin’s
fear response”.
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16
6. Decision-Making Process
