19 Based on Firth as cited by Leon 2007:3, says
Meaning by collocation is an abstraction at the syntagmatic level and is not directly concerned with the conceptual or idea approach to the meaning of
words. One of the meanings of night is its collocability with dark, and of dark, of course, collocation with night Firth [1951] 1957:196.
2.2.2 The Importance of Collocation
According to Manning 1999:142 collocations are important for a number of applications:
1 Natural language generation to make sure that the output sounds natural and mistakes like powerful tea or to take a decision are avoided
2 Computational lexicography to automatically identify the important collocations to be listed in a dictionary entry
3 Parsing so that preference can be given to parses with natural collocations 4 Corpus linguistic research for instance, the study of social phenomena like
the reinforcement of cultural stereotypes through language Stubbs 1996.
2.2.3 Kinds of Collocation
Hill 2002 as cited by Nasution 2003:15-17 states that collocation is divided into four kinds, they are:
1. Unique collocations. It is useful to think of collocation on a cline from probably
uniquefixedstrong to flexibleweak. Gwyneth 1998:99 pointed out the uniqueness in their corpus of foot used as a verb in the collocation foot the
bill. We cannot imagine footing the invoice, or footing the coffee. Similarly, we shrug our shoulder, but no other part of our anatomy.
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20 2. Strong collocations.
A large number of collocations, although not unique, are strong or very strong. Predictably, we may talk of trenchant criticism or rancid butter, but
this does not mean that other things cannot be trenchant or rancid. We often have ulterior motives or harbor grudges while being reduced to tears or even
moved to tears. Such strong collocations are not unique, but it is clear that any knowledge of the words trenchant, rancid, motive, grudge, or tears would
be incomplete without some idea of their strong collocates. There words are classified as strong collocations.
3. Weak collocations. All elementary students create combinations of words which are on the verge
of the area we define as collocations i.e. those words which co-occur with a greater than random frequency. Many things can be long or short, cheap or
expensive, good or bad. Colours are a good example. Early on, students learn the primary colour. They are able to make combinations such as blue shirt,
red car etc. they know that they can apply the colours in English in a similar way to their own language.
4. Medium strength collocations. The main load for all language users is not at the strong or weak ends of the
collocational spectrum, but in the middle- those many thousands of collocations, which make up the greater part of what we say and write. Most
intermediate students will know the words hold and conversation, but may not know that you can hold a conversation. They know the words make and
mistake, but have not stored make a mistake in their mental lexicons as a single item.
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21 Benson et al 1985 as cited by Martyńska 2004:3 divides kinds of
collocation into two categories: lexical collocations and grammatical collocations. Grammatical collocations consist of the main word a noun, an adjective, a verb plus
a preposition or ‘to+ infinitive’ or ‘that- clause’ and is characterized by eight basic types of collocations.
G1= noun+ preposition e.g. blockade against, apathy towards G2= noun+ to-infinitive e.g. he was a fool to do it. They felt a need to do it
G3= noun+ that-clause e.g. we reached an agreement that she would represent us in court. He took an oath that he would do his duty
G4= preposition+ noun e.g. by accident, in agony G5= adjective+ preposition e.g. fond of children, hungry for news
G6= adjective+ to-infinitive e.g. it was necessary to work, it’s nice to be here G7= adjective+ that-clause e.g. she was afraid that she would fail, it was imperative
that I be there G8= 19 different verb patterns in English e.g. verb+ to-infinitive they began to
speak, verb+ bare infinitive we must work and other.
Table 2.1: Types of Grammatical Collocation by Benson et al 1985 as cited by Martyńska 2004:3
Type Pattern
Example G1
Noun+ preposition Blockade against
G2 Noun+ to-infinitive
A fool to do G3
Noun+ that-clause An agreement that
G4 Preposition+ noun
By accident G5
Adjective+ preposition Hungry of news
G6 Adjective+ to-infinitive
Nice to be G7
Adjective+ that-clause Afraid that
G8 19 different verb pattern
Began to speak
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22 Lexical collocations do not contain prepositions, infinitives, or relative
clauses but consist of nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. There are 7 types of them.
L1= verb which means creationaction + nounpronounprepositional phrase e.g. come to an agreement, launch a missile
L2= verb which means eradicationcancellation + noun e.g. reject an appeal, crush resistance
L3= [adjective+ noun] or [noun used in an attributive way+ noun] e.g. strong tea, a crushing defeat, house arrest, land reform
L4= noun+ verb naming the activity which is performed by a designate of this noun e.g. bombs explode, bees sting
L5= quantifier+ noun e.g. a swarm of bees, a piece of advice L6= adverb+ adjective e.g. hopelessly addicted, sound sleep
L7= verb+ adverb e.g. argue heatedly, apologize humbly.
Table 2.2: Types of Lexical Collocation by Benson et al 1985 as cited by Martyńska 2004:3
Type Pattern
Example L1
Verb+ noun pronoun prepositional phrase
Set a record L2
Verb+ noun Dispel fear
L3 [Adjective +noun] or
[noun+ noun] Strong tea
L4 Noun+ verb
Bombs explode L5
Quantifier+ noun A pack of dogs
L6 Adverb+ adjective
Closely acquainted L7
Verb+ adverb Appreciate sincerely
While talking about Indonesian collocation, then Kridalaksana 1982 as cited by Arifin et al 2008-26 said that,
asosiasian suatu kata dengan kata lain akan terjadi apabila kata tertentu memberikan makna tertentu pula terhadap kata lain yang disandingnya,
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23 dengan demikian, kita akan menjumpai persandingan antara nomina dan
nomina, nomina dan adjectiva, nomina dan verba, nomina dan numeralia.
Kridalaksana wants to emphasize that the association of a word will be happened if the word gives the certain meaning to the other words where they
collocate. Based on what has been stated above, there are four kinds of collocation suggested by Kridalaksana, they are: noun+ noun, noun+ adjective, noun+ verb,
noun+ numeral. Generally, collocation in Indonesian is classified into two. The first one is
Kolokasi Kelompok I and the second is Kolokasi Kelompok II. Kolokasi Kelompok I has the pattern of noun+ adjective and it is divided into twelve types, they are:
1. Collocation type I A. Formed by noun which is semantic, human, concrete, and countable. While the adjective is semantic, character, and behavior.
Example: anak cerdas
orang sabar
N Adj
N Adj
2. Collocation type I B. Formed by noun which is semantic, non- human, non- concrete, countable, non- alive and time. While the adjective is semantic and
situation. Example: iklan
penting malam
aman N
Adj N
Adj 3. Collocation type I C. Formed by noun which is semantic, non- human, non-
concrete, countable, alive, and grouped. While the adjective is semantic, and situation.
Example: tanah subur
Negara makmur N
Adj N
Adj 4. Collocation type I D. Formed by noun which is semantic, non- human,
concrete, countable, non- alive, part of body. While the adjective is semantic and situation.
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24 Example: wajah
bulat hati
lembut N
Adj N
Adj 5. Collocation type I E. Formed by noun which is semantic, non- human, non-
concrete, uncountable, and non-alive. While the adjective is semantic and quality.
Example: nasib buruk
cerita pendek
N Adj
N Adj
6. Collocation type I F. Formed by noun which is semantic, human, concrete, and countable. While the adjective is semantic and situation.
Example: bapak gagah pemuda
tampan N
Adj N
Adj 7. Collocation type I G. Formed by noun which is semantic, human, concrete,
and countable. While the adjective is semantic and age. Example: janda
muda orang
tua N
Adj N
Adj 8. Collocation type I H. Formed by noun which is semantic, non- human,
concrete, and countable. While the adjective is semantic and colour. Example: angsa putih
kotak hijau N Adj
N Adj
9. Collocation type I I. Formed by noun which is semantic, non- human, concrete, countable, and non- alive. While the adjective is semantic and size.
Example: barang berat bangku panjang
N Adj N Adj
10. Collocation type I J. Formed by noun which is semantic, non- human, concrete, countable, and non- alive. While the adjective is semantic and
situation. Example: bibir
sumbing jari
lentik N
Adj N
Adj
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25 11. Collocation type I K. Formed by noun which is semantic, non- human, non-
concrete, uncountable, and alive. While the adjective is semantic and situation.
Example: awan mendung cahaya redup
N Adj N
Adj 12. Collocation type I L. Formed by noun which is semantic, non- human,
concrete, countable, and non- alive. While the adjective is semantic and environment.
Example: pintu baru laut luas
N Adj N Adj
Kolokasi Kelompok II formed by adjective+ noun. Basically this type of collocation is the opposite of Kolokasi Kelompok I.
Example: kuning langsat merah darah
Adj N Adj
N
2.2.4 Strategies in Translating Collocation