The English sound change of English Language Education Study Program Students of Victory University Sorong West Papua.

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vii ABSTRACT

Rahamitu, Engelbertha M. S. (2015). The English Sound Change of English Language Education Study Program Students of Victory University Sorong West Papua. Yogyakarta : Sanata Dharma University.

A mother tongue is the first language that people acquire from their family and environment. In order to broaden people’s communication, they learn another language. Some problems appear when people try to speak English as the second language but then they borrow the pattern from their mother tongue or as it called ‘negative transfer’. This causes the sound changes which become the researcher’s intention to conduct this research.

The research was intended to provide information about the English sound changes of the English Language Education Study Program students of Victory University whose first language is Papua-Malay dialect. It also studied the distribution of the sound change among the participants.

This research used mixed method research. The participants in this research were the 4th semester students of English Language Education Study Program of Victory University. There were fifteen students who took part in this research.The researcher analyzed the sound change phenomenon in the students’ pronunciation. The students’ pronunciation was recorded by using audio recorder. After recording, students’ pronunciation was translated into the phonetic transcription and was compared with the phonetics transcription based on Oxford Dictionary and Longman Dictionary.

The researcher found seven out of nine types of sound change classified by Crowley (1992). They were lenition and fortition, sound addition, fusion, unpacking, vowel breaking, assimilation, and abnormal change. The distribution showed that lenition and fortition were the most frequent sound change occured in the students’ pronunciation and followed by abnormal change, assimilation, sound addition, fusion, unpacking and vowel breaking. In addition, the researcher also offered recommendation for the teachers and lecturers, ELESP students of Victory University, and future researcher who is interested in this topic.

Keywords: Sound change, English sound change, university students, Papua-Malay dialect

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viii ABSTRAK

Bahasa ibu adalah bahasa pertama yang diperoleh seseorang dari keluarga dan lingkungannya. Dengan tujuan memperluas komunikasi, seseorang belajar bahasa yang lain. Permasalahan terjadi ketika seseorang berusaha untuk berbicara bahasa Inggris sebagai bahasa kedua, namun ia membawa struktur bahasa dari bahasa asalnya atau yang disebut dengan ‘transfer negatif’. Hal ini menyebabkan perubahan bunyi yang kemudian menjadi tujuan peneliti untuk melakukan penelitian ini.

Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menyediakan informasi terkait perubahan bunyi dari mahasiswa pendidikan bahasa Inggris universitas Victory yang memiliki bahasa pertama Papua-Malay. Penelitian ini juga mempelajari pendistribusian perubahan bunyi tersebut diantara partisipan.

Penelitian ini menggunakan metode penelitian campuran. Partisipan di dalam penelitian ini merupakan mahasiswa semester 4 dari Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Universitas Victory Sorong. Terdapat lima belas mahasiswa yang terlibat dalam peneltian ini.Peneliti menganalisa fenomena perubahan bunyi yang terjadi pada mahasiswa. Pelafalan mahasiswa direkam dengan menggunakan media perekam suara. Setelah proses rekaman, hasil pelafalan mahasiswa diterjemahkan kedalam transkrip fonetik dan dibandingkan dengan transkrip fonetik yang terdapat pada kamus Oxford dan Longman.

Peneliti menemukan tujuh dari sembilan tipe perubahan bunyi seperti yang diklasifikasikan oleh (Crowley, 1992). Perubahan bunyi tersebut adalah

lenition and fortition, sound addition, fusion, unpacking, vowel breaking, assimilation, dan abnormal change. Pembagian menunjukan bahwa lenition and fortition merupakan tipe perubahan bunyi yang paling sering dilakukan mahasiswa. Selanjutnya diikuti oleh abnormal change, assimilation, sound addition, fusion, unpacking dan vowel breaking. Sebagai tambahan, peliti juga menawarkan rekomendasi kepada guru dan dosen, mahasiswa Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris di Universitas Victory dan peneliti dikemudian hari yang tertarik pada topik ini.

Kata Kunci: Sound change, English sound change, university students, Papua-Malay dialect

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THE ENGLISH SOUND CHANGE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE

EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM STUDENTS OF VICTORY

UNIVERSITY SORONG WEST PAPUA

A

SARJANA PENDIDIKAN

THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

Engelbertha Maria Serviam Rahamitu Student Number: 111214175

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

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THE ENGLISH SOUND CHANGE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE

EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM STUDENTS OF VICTORY

UNIVERSITY SORONG WEST PAPUA

A

SARJANA PENDIDIKAN

THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

Engelbertha Maria Serviam Rahamitu Student Number: 111214175

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

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I have become sounding brass or a clanging cymbal. If I have the gift of prophecy,

and know all mysteries and all knowledge; And if I have all faith so as to remove mountains,

BUT DON’T HAVE LOVE, I am nothing. (1 Corinthians 13;1-2)

Dedicated to:

My Dad

Drs. Yakobus Zakarias Rahamitu.

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STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY

I honestly declare that this thesis, which I have written, does not contain the work or parts of the work of other people, except those cited in the quotations and the references, as a scientific paper should.

Yogyakarta, 10 August 2015 The Writer

Engelbertha Maria Serviam Rahamitu 111214175

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LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN

PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIK Yang bertandatangan di bawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:

Nama : Engelbertha Maria Serviam Rahamitu

NomorMahasiswa : 111214175

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

THE ENGLISH SOUND CHANGE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM STUDENTS OF VICTORY UNIVERSITY SORONG WEST

PAPUA

Beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada PerpustakaanSanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikanya secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu minta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalty kepada saya selama tetap mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.

Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya.

Dibuat di Yogyakarta

Pada Tanggal: 10 Agustus 2015

Yang menyatakan

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vii ABSTRACT

Keywords: Sound change, English sound change, university students, Papua-Malay dialect

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viii ABSTRAK

Peneliti menemukan tujuh dari sembilan tipe perubahan bunyi seperti yang diklasifikasikan oleh (Crowley, 1992). Perubahan bunyi tersebut adalah

Kata Kunci: Sound change, English sound change, university students, Papua-Malay dialect

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ACKNOWLEDMENTS

I would like to thank everyone, who either directly or indirectly, contributed a lot to the accomplishment of this thesis. I would like to express my greatest gratitude to Jesus Christ for always loving and stenghthening me during the hardest time of my study. I realize that I am nothing without Him.

I am most grateful to Fx. Ouda Teda Ena, M.Pd., Ed.D., my major sponsor, who has given me his patient guidence and his encouragement. My profound gratitude also goes to him that in spite of his duty, he was always ready to help me in completing this thesis.

I would like to thank Bruder Filianus Nasu Rusik who helped me a great deal in finishing this study. I thank him because of his valuable time spent to give me references, comments and supports as well.

Next appreciation goes to Orpa Elsi Waromi, S. Pd. and Marje E. Holle, S.Pd., M.M for their kindness to let me conduct this research in Victory University, and also Lulu Jola Wattimena, S. Pd., the lecturer in Victory University for her valuable time in the classroom given to me to conduct the research. My gratitude is extended also to the 4th semester students of the English Language Education Study Program of Victory University who have become participants of this study and for their cooperation and willingness to read the passage and share their experiences.

I am also grateful to my beloved family for their assistence that enabled me to stand and face every obstacle in the hardest time of my study. I also thank my Mom and my big brother Rio for their sacrifices to work hard to provide me with everything that I need to study. My special gratitude also goes to my dearest Daddy for the endless love, prayers, and supports that wonderfully strengthen me every day to finish my study.

My sincere gratitude also goes to Kementrian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Republik Indonesia for their most helpful program Beasiswa Unggulan that paid my tuition for the past 4 years.

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My sincere gratitude also goes to Kementrian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Republik Indonesia for their most helpful program Beasiswa Unggulan that paid my tuition for the past 4 years.

I would like to thank my dearest friends Marlin Bre, Faradita Shabrina,

B. Gracia, PBI 2011 Class C, and SMANTI Sorong 2010, for their most valuable support in various ways that helped me to finish this thesis happy and

alive. They taught me the attitude of “piye carane isa!”, and never give up.

My special thanks go to UKM PSM Cantus Firmus and all of the greatly talented people there for helping me in the process of finding who I am and exploring the best of me. Their readiness to cheer me up has always been a big support to finish my study and be a better person.

I sincerely express my special thanks to Ferdinandus Giovani Yamlean, S.T. for being my biggest supporter. His love, attention, patient, prayer, and support has motivated me to finish my study whole-heartedly.

Last but not least, I would also like to express my gratitude to those whose names I cannot mention here, but have given me a hand in finishing this thesis. May God bless all of you.

Engelbertha Maria Serviam Rahamitu

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TILTE PAGE ... i

APPROVAL PAGE ... ii

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ... v

PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ... vi

ABSTRACT ... vii

ABSTRAK ... viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... xi

LIST OF TABLES ... xiv

LIST OF FIGURES ... xv

LIST OF APPENDICES ... xvi

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION A. Research Background ... 1

B. Research Problems ... 3

C. Problem Limitation ... 3

D. Research Objectives ... 4

E. Research Benefits ... 4

F. Defition of Terms ... 5

CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ... 7

A. Theoretical Description ... 7

1. Language Change ... 7

a. The Causes of Language Change ... 8

1) Articulatory Simplification ... 8

2) Regularization ... 9

3) Language Contact ... 9

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xii

2) Syntactic Change ... 10

3) Semantic Change ... 10

4) Phonological Change ... 11

2. English Sound Change ... 11

a. Types of Sound Change ... 11

1) Lenition and Fortition ... 12

2) Sound Addition ... 12

3) Metathesis ... 12

4) Fusion ... 13

5) Unpacking ... 13

6) Vowel Breaking ... 13

7) Assimilation ... 13

8) Dissimilation ... 14

9) Abnormal Change ... 14

3. English Sound Production ... 14

a. Consonant Sounds ... 14

1) Bilabial Plosives [p, b] ... 15

2) Alveolar Plosives [t, d] ... 16

3) Velar Plosives [k, g] ... 16

4) Palato-alveolar Affricates [ʧ,ʤ] ... 17

5) Labio-dental Fricatives [f,v] ... 17

6) Dental Fricatives [θ,ð] ... 18

7) Alveolar Fricatives [s,z] ... 18

8) Palato-alveolar Fricatives [ʃ,ʒ] ... 18

9) Glottal Fricatives [h] ... 19

10)Bilabial Nasal [m] ... 19

11)Alveolar Nasal [n] ... 20

12)Velar Nasal [ŋ] ... 20

13)Alveolar Lateral [l] ... 20

14)Post-alveolar Roll [r] ... 21

15)Palatal Semi-vowel [j] ... 21

16)Bilabial semi-vowel [w] ... 22

b. Vowel Sounds ... 23

1) High Front Unrounded Vowels [i:] and [ɪ].... 24

2) Mid Front Unrounded Vowel [e] ... 24

3) Low Front Unrounded Vowel [æ]... 25

4) Low Front Unrounded Vowel [ʌ]... 25

5) Low Back Rounded Vowel [a:] and [ɒ].... 25

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xiii

7) High Back Rounded Vowels [ʊ] and [u:]... 26

8) Central Mid Unrounded Vowels [ɜ:] and [ə].. 26

c. Diphthong... 27

1) Centring Diphthongs [ɪə], [ɜə], and [ʊə]... 28

2) Closing Fronting Diphthongs [eɪ], [aɪ], and [ɔɪ] ... 29

3) Closing Backing Diphthongs[əʊ] and [aʊ]... 29

B. Theoretical Framework ... 31

CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY A. Research Method ... 32

B. Research Setting ... 34

C. Research Source ... 34

D. Research Instruments and Data Gathering Technique ... 34

E. Data Analysis Techniques ... 35

F. Research Produre ... 36

CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A. Types of Participants’ Sound Change ... 39

1. Lenition and Fortition ... 39

2. Sound Addition ... 46

3. Fusion ... 47

4. Unpacking ... 49

5. Vowel Breaking ... 50

6. Assimilation ... 51

7. Abnormal Change ... 52

B. The distribution of The Sound Change ... 56

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS A. Conclusions ... 61

B. Recommendations ... 62

1. For English Teachers or Lecturers ... 62

2. For Students of ELESP Victory University ... 62

3. For Future Researchers ... 63

REFERENCES ... 64

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xiv

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

3.1 The Phonetic Transcription of Students’ Pronunciation ... 34

3.2 Comparing the Phonetic Transcription ... 35

3.3 The Types of English Sound Changes by Crowley (1992) ... 35

3.4 The Distributions of Sound Change Occurred in the Students’ Pronunciation ... 36

4.1 The Words Classified as Lenition ... 40

4.2 The Words Classified as Fortition ... 44

4.3 The Words Classified as Sound Addition ... 47

4. 4 The Words Classified as Fusion ... 48

4. 5 The Words Classified as Unpacking ... 49

4.6 The Words Classified as Vowel Breaking ... 50

4.7 The Words Classifies as Assimilation ... 51

4.8 The Words Classified as Abnormal Sound Change ... 53

4.9 The Distribution of English Sound Change among Participants ... 57

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

2.1 Consonant Articulation (Indriani, 2005) ... 15

2.2 English Vowel Sounds (Indriani, 2001) ... 23

2.3 English Diphthong Sounds (Indriani, 2001) ... 27

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xvi

LIST OF APPENDICES

Apendix Page

APPENDIX A Permission Letter ... 67

APPENDIX B Sample of The Passage ... 69

APPENDIX C The Comparison of Phonetic Transcription ... 71

APPENDIX D Students’ Pronunciation ... 74

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides general introduction to the research. There are six sections that will be discussed. They are the background of the study, problem formulation, problem limitation, research objectives, research benefits, and definition of terms.

A. Research Background

A mother tongue is the first language that people acquire from the family

and environment. It has directly structured in mind because people use it all the

time. This repetition makes people strongly get used to it. Moreover, when people learn a second language in this case is English, there is something happen in the brain when it has to transfer the second language in to the first language to understand it. The problems appear when people try to speak English as the second language but then they borrow the pattern from their mother tongue. Wilkins (1972) defines the language transfers as follows:

“When learning a foreign language an individual already knows his mother

tongue, and it is this which he attempts to transfer. The transfer may prove to be justified because the structure of the two languages is similar – in that case we get

“Positive transfer” or “facilitation” – or it may prove unjustified because the

structure of the two languages are different – in that case we get “negative

transfer” or“interference” (p. 199)

This statement clarifies some problems occured in people’s pronounciation. That is because of the ‘negative transfer’. Some people with different language background may mispronounce the words of the target

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language. Some of the problems occur in the English pronunciation. When people found any similar elements from the first language to the second language, they may be able to pronounce it. However, if there are different elements people may mispronounce the words and make any changes in the sound.

This is also happen in the process of learning English as a second language

of some university students in English Language Education Study Program whose

first language is Papua-Malay Dialect. The writer found that the students often

mispronounce the words and tend to replace the sound with a more familiar sound

which is easier for them to pronounce. This substitution was once explained by

Crystal (1991) that “Substitution refers to the process or result of replacing one

item by another at a particular place.” (p. 335) In this study, the students made the

substitutions as the result of simplification of the sound that was easier for them to

pronounce certain English sounds. For example, the word they [ðeI] will be

pronounced as [deI] the same case happen with the words that have a cluster of

consonant like text [tekst] will be pronounced as [tek] or just [teks].

This kind of changes or substitution has motivated the writer to observe

and do the research on it which took a specific background of mother tongue

Papua–Malay dialect. Many students of English Language Education Study Program are from the background of L1 that is Papua-Malay especially in some

universities in Papua. As they are trying to be a good English teacher with a good

pronunciation of English, they have to face this kind of changes. This becomes

really important for English teachers to-be to consider this sound changes in order

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language with a good English pronunciation. The focus of this research is the

sound change of the students of English Language Education Study Program

whose first language is Papua-Malay dialect.

B. Research Problems

In conducting this research the writer focuses on these questions to be

answered:

1. What are the types of English sound change of the students of ELESP

of Victory University whose first language is Papua-Malay dialect?

2. What is the distribution of the sound change among the students of

ELESP of Victory University whose first languange is Papua-malay dialect?

In order to answer these questions, the writer conducted a survey at Victory University in Sorong, West Papua, specifically the English Language Education Study Program. The writer chose the sample from the 4st semester students in a speaking class using intended sample.

C. Problem Limitation

This research was limited on the English sound change in the pronunciation of the students of ELESP of Victory University whose first language is Papua-Malay dialect. The writer intended to know and dig out the

phenomena of sound change that occurred on students’ pronunciation.

It would not include the discussion of pitch, stress, intonation, and spelling. This research would not discuss the correct or incorrect pronunciation of

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the students because the focus was only to provide information related to the

sound change of the students’ pronunciation. D. Research Objectives

The objectives of this study were to find out the types of English sound changes of the students of English Department whose first language is Papua-Malay and the distribution of the sound change among participants.

E. The Benefits

The results of this study are expected to be beneficial for further development related to this topic. Moreover, there are some benefits aimed at the teachers and lecturers in English Department of Victory University or commonly in Sorong West Papua, students of the English Department, and future researchers. For teachers and lecturers in English Department of Victory University or commonly in Sorong West Papua hopefully this study will help the them to analyze the sound change that occurred on the students’ pronunciation, to know how why students tend to do the mispronunciation of certain English sounds, and to know how to deal with this changes when it occurs to the students.

For students of ELESP at Victory University, hopefully this study will help them to improve their English pronunciation and minimize their difficulties in pronouncing English sounds. Moreover, to help them knowing how to teach the correct English pronunciation to their own students as they are going to be English teachers

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For future researchers, hopefully this study can provide several new significant ideas and data to be investigated further at the other fields or language backgrounds.

F. Definition of Terms

This study used several terms to discuss the topic. Therefore, it is important to give appropriate information about the definition that the researcher mentioned in this study to avoid misunderstanding and to lead readers to a better understanding on the topic being discussed. The definition terms used in this thesis are:

1. Language Change

Croft (2000, p. 1) mentiones that language change is a historical phenomenon, which becomes a thing to be dealt with historical linguistics. Historical linguistics is sometimes called diachronic linguistics which is more concerned with changes in languages over time and synchronic linguistics that deals with languages at a single period of time Campbell (2004, p. 4). This research use a synchronic perspective as it is conducted to describe the actual pronunciation of present-day English spoken in a particular speech community.

2. Phonological Change

Phonological change refers to any change in the sound system Fasold and Linton (2006, p. 281). Moreover, Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams (2003, p. 504) mentiones that changes in phonological rule can result in dialect differences.

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3. Negative Transfer

In the process of transfering language from source language to the target language, an individual will experience either positive of negative transfer. According to Wilkins (1992), the transfer may prove unjustified because the structure of the two languages are different –in that case we get “negative transfer” or “interference” (p. 199)

4. English Sound Change

5. Papua-Malay Dialect

Papuan Malay is a Malay–based language spoken in the Western part of Papuan Island, Indonesia. It is one of the Austronesia languages of New Guinea (Foley, 1976). In the past, it was a pidgin used as a lingua franca along the coastal areas, where there was a lot of trade between the people from the island and seafaring Malay traders from the west (Roosman, 1982, p. 95). During the time the island was a colony of the Netherlands, it was used by missionaries to spread the Scriptures of God among Papuan people, especially among those living in the coastal areas in the North. It was at the time also enforced through education and administration Adelaar and Prentice (1996). At this moment, Papuan Malay becomes the mother tongue of the younger generations of the Papuan, as well as of other ethnical groups living in Papua Saragih (n. d).

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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter aims to discuss the fundamental theories related to this research. There are two elements discussed in this chapter; the theoretical description and the theoretical framework.

A. Theoretical Description

The theoretical description involves the discussion about language change, English sound change, and English sound production.

1. Language Change

All physical aspects of the universe and all aspects of human life are subject to change, and languages are no exception Schendl (2001, p. 3). Language changes also because they are used by human beings not machines. Human being shared common physiological and cognitive characteristics, but members of a speech community differ slightly in their knowledge and use of their shared language Fasold and Linton (2006, p. 277). Different regions, social classes and even generations will create a different use of a language. Moreover, Croft (2000, p. 1) also says that language change is a historical phenomenon, which becomes a thing to be dealt with historical linguistics. Historical linguistics is sometimes called diachronic linguistics which is more concerned with changes in languages over time and synchronic linguistics that deals with languages at a single period of time Campbell (2004, p. 4). This research used a synchronic perspective as it was conducted to describe the actual pronunciation of present-day English spoken in a

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particular speech community. These explanations below are the causes of language change and the types of language change.

a. The Causes of Language Change

As mentioned before that languages change because they are used by human beings not machines, it explains that as long as human beings exist the language will keep changing as human are growing with many supporting factors not stable like a machine. Campbell (2004, p. 316) mentioned that the internal causes include the physical and psychological factor. The physical factor is for example, the physiology of human speech organs. The psychological or cognitive factor involves the perception, processing and learning of language. While, the external causes involve factors such as expressive uses of language, positive and negative social evaluations (prestige, stigma), the effects of literacy, prescriptive grammar, educational policies, political degree, language planning, language contact, and so on.

Related to the theory, Fasold and Linton (2006, p. 277) state that the language change is motivated by the physiological, cognitive, and social forces which can be attributed to articulatory simplification, regularization, and contact between the languages. They are explained as follow.

1) Articulatory Simplification

Fasold and Linton (2006, p. 277) express that many changes in the phonology of a language are motivated by the physiological goal of enhancing the ease of articulation. It can be inferred that some people “simplify” the mechanism of sound production when they found it difficult to be pronounced. Ur (1999, p.

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52) states that a particular sound may not exist in the mother tongue. Therefore, some non-native English speaker may substitute the nearest equivalence that the speaker knows.

2) Regularization

A regular pattern is easier to learn than a pattern with lots of exception. Children acquiring their native languages prefer regular pattern too, and over time languages tend to erase irregularities Fasold and Linton (2006, p. 278).

3) Language Contact

One of the main reasons why languages change is because they come into contact with other languages Schendl (2001, p. 55). It means, the contact of two speakers may lead to the language change. According to Fasold and Linton (2006, p. 278), language change is a result of contacts between speakers of different languages.

b. Types of Language Change

According to Fasold and Linton (2006) there are four types of language change, namely, morphological change, syntactic change, semantic change, and phonological change. They are explained as follow.

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1) Morphological Change

Morphological change refers to any change in the morphophonemic system (the morphemes and their phonemic representation) of a language Fasold and Linton (2006, p. 283).

2) Syntactic Change

Syntactic change refers to change in the grammatical system of a language Fasold and Linton (2006, p. 284). Murray (1996, p. 337) states that syntactic changes involve modifications to phrase structure rules or transformations. Referring to those statements, syntactic change can be defined as the change of the grammar and structure of the sentences.

3) Semantic Change

Semantic change is mainly concerned with change in the meanings of words (Fasold and Linton, 2006, p. 284). Therefore, when the meaning itself changes, it is probable for a word to have some meaning variations. Murray (1996, p. 344) defines semantic change as the changes in word meaning and it does take place in all languages. Campbell (2004, p. 252) also states that semantic change is the change in meaning and vocabulary. Schendl (2001, p. 29) states that semantic changes trigger the variety of language meaning. That is why people may find one single word can have more than one meaning.

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11 4) Phonological Change

Phonological change focuses on the sound change. Phonological change refers to any change in the sound system Fasold and Linton (2006, p. 281). Murray (1996, p. 318) in his book Historical Linguistics: The Study of Language Change stated that most sound changes begin as subtle alterations in the sound pattern of a language in particular phonetic environments. That is why the changes of sound of certain language including English occur slightly.

2. English Sound Change

Sound change is a change in the way members of a speech community pronounce particular sounds. Sound changes result in phonological changes Fasold and Linton (2006, p. 285). In this research, sound change refers to the change of the sounds produced by some English department students as the speech community with the background mother tongue is Papuan-Malay Dialect. Crowley (1992) classifies types of sound change into nine catogories i.e lenition and fortition, sound addition, metathesis, fusion, unpacking, vowel breaking, assimilation, dissimilation, and abnormal sound changes (p. 39-59). Each type of sound changes will be described below.

a. Types of Sound Change

The sounds of a language can change in a variety of ways, according to Crowley (1992, p. 39-59) there are nine kinds of attested sound changes in the languages of the world.

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1) Lenition and Fortition

Lenition refers to the weakening of sound such as devoicing and changes from stronger sounds to the weaker ones. Lenition includes aphaeresis or the loss of initial consonant, apocope or the loss of final vowels, and syncope, which is the loss of medial vowels. It also includes cluster reduction, which refers to deletion of one or more consonants, and haplology or the loss of an entire syllable in a word. On the contrary, fortition refers to sound changes from weaker to stronger sounds, such as semi-vowels into consonants (Crowley, 1992, p. 39-43).

2) Sound Addition

Sound addition includes excrescence, ephenthesis, and prothesis. Excrescence refers to the process by which a consonant is added between two other consonants in a word. Meanwhile, ephenthesis and prothesis refer to the addition of vowel in the middle of a word to break two consonants and the addition of sound at the beginning of a word respectively (Crowley, 1992, p. 43-45).

3) Metathesis

Metathesis is another type of sound change but it is quite uncommon. It refers to a change in the order of the sounds (Crowley, 1992, p. 45). Fasold and Linton (2006, p. 293) call it as a process when sometimes the positions of sounds are transposed. For example, Old English hros, brid, thurh, thridda, wyrhta became Modern English horse, bird, through, third, Wright.

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13 4) Fusion

It refers to the blending of two separate sounds to become a single sound and the resulting single sound carries some of the phonetic features of both of the original sound (Crowley, 1992, p. 46).

5) Unpacking

Unpacking is a phonetic process that is the opposite of phonetic fusion. From a single original sound, a sequence of two sounds may develop, each with some of the feature of the original sound. (Crowley, 1992, p. 48).

6) Vowel Breaking

Vowel breaking is fairly common in the languages of the world. The process refers to the change of a single vowel to become a diphthong, with the original vowel remaining the same, but with a glide of some kind being added either before or after it. (Crowley, 1992, p . 49) .

7) Assimilation

Many sound changes can be viewed as being due to the influence of one sound upon another. This influence that causes one sound to change so that the two sounds end up being more similar to each other in some way is called assimilation. (Crowley, 1992, p. 49)

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8) Dissimilation

Dissimilation process is precisely the opposite of assimilation process. Instead of making two sounds more like each other, this process means that one sound changes to become less like some other nearby sound. Therefore, it reduces the number of shared phonetic features between two sounds. (Crowley, 1992, p. 56).

9) Abnormal Sound Changes

Sometimes an individual sound has changed in a rather unusual way. Abnormal sound changes are the sound changes that would appear, at first glance, to be abnormal. In the sense that they do not obviously fit into any of the categories that have mentioned above Crowley (1992).

3. English Sound Production

There are three parts that will be discussed as the English sound production in this section. They are the English consonant, English vowels, and diphthongs.

a. Consonant Sounds

Consonant is a speech sound which typically occurs at the margins of the syllable (Collins and Mees, 2003, p. 72). It exists before or after a vowel or diphthong to form a syllable. Consonant are produced with some restriction or closure in the vocal tract that impedes the flow of air from lungs Fromkin, Rodman, Hyams (2003). According to Indriani (2005), there are twenty-four

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consonants in English, namely, [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g], [f], [v], [s], [z], [ ʃ], [ʒ],

[tʃ], [dʒ], [ө], [ð], [m], [n], [ŋ], [h], [l], [r], [w], [j] (p. 8). Figure 2.1 shows the articulation of the English consonant sounds.

Fig 2.1 Chief English Consonantal Articulations (Indriani, 2005, p. 11)

In the following part, the consonant sounds would be discussed based on the place of articulation and the manner of articulation. Here are the details of the English consonant sounds.

1) Bilabial Plosives [p,b]

[p] and [b] are two sounds of the English consonants. According to Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003), based on the place of the articulation, [p] and [b] sounds are articulated by bringing both lips together which is called bilabials (p. 242). Meanwhile, based on the manner of the articulation, the sound

Place of articulation

B IL A B IA L L AB IO -DE N T AL DE NT AL AL VE OL AR P OS T AL VE OL AR P AL AT O - AL VE OL AR P AL AT AL VE L AR GL OT AL M a n n e r o f a r ti c u la ti o n COMPLETE ORAL CLOSURE Plosive

p b t d k g

Affricate _{tʃ d}_ʒ

Nasal _m _n ᵑ

INTERMITTE NT CLOSURE Roll r PARTIAL CLOSURE Leteral l NARROWING

Fricative f v ϴ ð s z ʃ ʒ h

GLIDE

Semi Vowel

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[p] and [b] are called plosives or nonnasal, or oral, stops because when we produce these sounds, the air that is blocked in the mouth explodes when the closure is released (Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2003, p. 247). For example,

pig [pɪg] and book [bʊk].

2) Alveolar Plosives [t,d]

Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003) explain that these sounds are called plosives or nonnasal, or oral, stops which are produced by blocking the air in the mouth and exploding when the closure is released (p. 247). In addtion he states that based on the place of the articulation, [t] and [d] sounds are called alveolar in which these sounds are produced by raising the front part of the tongue to the alveolar ridge (Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2003, p. 242). For example, time

[taɪm], take [teɪk], and day [deɪ].

3) Velar Plosives [k,g]

Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003) state that based on the place of the articulation, [k] and [g] sounds are called velar in which these sounds are produced by raising the back of the tongue to the soft palate or velum (p. 243). Meanwhile, based on the manner of the articulation [k] and [g] sounds are called plosives because these sounds are produced by blocking the air in the mouth and exploding when the closure is released (Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2003, p. 247). For example, come [kʌm], close [kloʊz], go [goʊ], and good [gʊd].

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17 4) Palato-alveolar Affricates [tʃ,dʒ]

According to Indriani (2001), based on the place of the articulation [tʃ] and

[dʒ] sounds are called palato-alveolar because to produce these sounds, the blade, or the tip and blade, of the tongue articulate with the alveolar ridge and there is at the same time a raising of the front of the tongue towards the hard palate (p. 9). For example, choice [tʃᴐɪs], cheap [tʃi:p], joke [dʒəʊk], and subject [səbdʒekt]. In addition, Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003) state that based on the manner of the articulation, [tʃ] and [dʒ] include as affricates sounds bacause these sounds are produced by a stop closure followed immediately by a gradual release of the closure that produces an effect characteristic of a fricative (p. 248).

5) Labio-dental Fricatives [f,v]

According to Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003), [f] and [v] sounds are called labiodentals in which to produce these sounds, we have to use our lips by touching the bottom lip to the upper teeth. Labio refers to lips and dental refers to teeth (p. 242). In addition, he states that based on the manner of the articulation, these sounds are also called fricatives because to produce these sounds, the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction (Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2000, p. 248). For example, fine [faɪn], after [ :ftə], love [lʌv], and above

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6) Dental Fricatives [ө,ð]

According to Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003), [ө] and [ð] sounds are called interdental because these sounds are formed with insert the tongue tip between the upper and lower teeth and block the airstream and have the air push through the narrow opening (p. 242). In addition, he states that based on the manner of the articultion, these sounds are include as fricatives sounds. It is because to produce these sounds, the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction (Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2003, p. 248). For example, thin

[өɪn], healthy [helөi], the [ðə], and with [wɪð].

7) Alveolar Fricatives [s,z]

According to Fromkin (2000), based on the place of the articulation, alveolar sound such as [s] and [z] are articulated by raising the front part of the tongue to the alveolar ridge (p. 242). In addition, based on the manner of the articultion, these sounds are include as fricatives sounds because to produce these sounds, the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction (Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2003, p. 248). For example, sing [sɪŋ], ask [ :sk], and does

[dʌz].

8) Palato – alveolar Fricative [ʃ,ʒ]

According to Indriani (2001), based on the place of the articulation [ʃ] and [ʒ] sounds are called palato-alveolar because to produce these sounds, the blade, or the tip and blade, of the tongue articulate with the alveolar ridge and there is at

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the same time a raising of the front of the tongue towards the hard palate (p. 9). In addition, Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003) state that based on the manner of the articultion, these sounds include as fricative sounds because to produce these sounds, the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction (Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2003, p. 248). For example, shop [ʃ p], she [ʃi], and vision

[vɪʒn].

9) Glottal Fricatives [h]

Based on the place of the articulation, the [h] sound includes as glottal sound which is produced when the glottal is open and no other modification of the air stream mechanisms occurs in the mouth (Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2003, p. 243). In addition Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003) state that [h] sound include as a fricative sound because to produce this sound, the airflow is so severely obstructed that it causes friction (Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2003, p. 248). For example, house [haʊs], who [hu:], and hair [heə].

10) Bilabial Nasal [m]

Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003) explain that [m] sound is one of the bilabial sounds because this sound is produced by bringing both lips together (p. 242). Meanwhile, based on the manner of the articulation [m] sound includes as a nasal sound. It is because when this sound is produced the velum is not in its raised position, the air escapes through the nose and the mouth (Fromkin,

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Rodman, and Hyams, 2003, p. 246). For example, miss [mɪs], maybe [meɪbi], and

simple [sɪmpl].

11) Alveolar Nasal [n]

According to Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003), based on the place of the articulation, the [n] sound is an alveolar sound which is articulated by raising the front part of the tongue to the alveolar ridge (p. 242). Meanwhile, based on the manner of the articulation, this sound includes as a nasal sound because when this sound is produced the velum is not in its raised position, the air escapes through the nose and the mouth (Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2000, p. 246). For example, no [nəʊ], month [mʌnө], coin [kᴐɪn], none [nʌn].

12) Velar Nasal [ŋ]

Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003) state that based on the place of the articulation, the [ŋ] sound is a velar sound in which this sound is produced by raising the back of the tongue to the soft palate or velum (p. 243). Meanwhile, based on the manner of the articulation, [ŋ] sound is a nasal sound in which when this sound is produced the velum is not in its raised position, the air escapes through the nose and the mouth (Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2003, p. 246). For example, uncle [ʌŋkl], thing [өɪŋ], link [lɪŋk], single [sɪŋgl].

13) Alveolar Lateral [l]

According to Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003), based on the place of the articulation, the [n] sound is an alveolar sound which is articulated by raising

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the front part of the tongue to the alveolar ridge (p. 242). Furthermore, Indriani (2001) state that based on the manner of the articulation, [l] sound include as lateral sound in which to produce this sound, a partial closure is made at some point in the mouth, the airstream being allowed to escape on one or both sides of the contact (p. 10). For example, leave [li:v], allow [əlaʊ], will [wɪl], and call

[kᴐ:l].

14) Post- alveolar Roll [r]

Based on the place of the articulation, Indriani (2001) classifies the [r] sound as a post-alveolar sound which is produced when the tip (and rims) of the tongue articulate with the rear part of the alveolar ridge (p. 9). Meanwhile, based on the manner of the articulation, the [r] sound includes as a roll sound in which in pronouncing this sound, there is a series of rapid intermittent closures or taps made by a flexible organ on a firmer surface, or the tongue tip taps against the alveolar ridge (Indriani, 2001, p. 10). For example, read [ri:d], sorry [s ri], and

library [laɪbrəri].

15) Palatal Semi-vowel [j]

Based on the place of the articulation, Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003) state the [j] sound is a palatal sound in which it is produced by raising the blade of the tongue toward the hard palatal just behind the alveolar ridge (p. 243). Meanwhile, based on the manner of the articulation, the [j] sound is also a semi-vowel or glide sound in which it is produced with little or no obstruction of the

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airstream in the mouth (Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2003, p. 250). For example, yesterday [jestədeɪ], university [junɪv :sɪti], year [jɪə], new [nju:].

16) Bilabial Semi Vowel [w]

According to Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003), based on the place of the articulation, [w] sound is articulated by bringing both lips together which is called bilabial (p. 242). Meanwhile, based on the manner of the articulation, the [w] sound is also a semi-vowel or glide sound in which it is produced with little or no obstruction of the airstream in the mouth (Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2003, p. 250). For example, which [wɪtʃ], twelve [twelv], water [wᴐ:tə], and away

[əweɪ].

Moreover, English sound system allows some clusters of consonants or knows as consonant cluster. According to Collins and Mees (2003), consonant cluster is a sequence of consonant at the margin of a syllable (p.72). It means that in one syllable can consist of two up to five consonants. Clusters may occur in the beginning, middle and final of a word.

In the beginning of a word as in words draw [drᴐ:] CC V C with two consonants or scream [skri:m] CCC V C with three consonants. In the middle of a word as in words lifting [lɪftɪŋ] C V CC V CC with two consonants or complete

[kəmpli:t] C V CCC V C V with three consonants. In the final of a word as in words desks [desks] C V CCC with three consonants or self [self] C V CC with two consonants.

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23 b. Vowel

Jones (1987) states that an English vowel in normal speech is defined as a voiced sound in forming which the air issues in a continuous stream through the pharynx and mouth, there being no obstruction and no narrowing such as would cause audible friction. Moreover, Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams (2003) mentioned that the quality of a vowel depends on the configuration of the vocal tract during its production. In addition, the difference in the position of the tongue is the primary cause of the difference of the various vowel sounds. Figure 2.2 shows the promary cardinal vowel in English.

Fig 2.2 The Primary Cardinal Vowel (Indriani, 2001, p. 13)

According to Fromkin (2000), the term front, central, and back refer to parts of the tongue raised (p. 227-229). Then, the term high, mid and low refer to

the difference in the tongue height (p. 228). In addition, the lips’ position in

u:

ʊ

:

ʌ

æ

ə

ː

I

e

i:

ɔ

ː

FRONT CENTRAL BACK

Close HIGH Half close

MID Half open

LOW open

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unrounded vowels is in a neutral position or they are spread out to press againts the face. Meanwhile, rounded vowels have lips pulled close together and pushed out from the face. In the following part, it would be presented the articulatory description of each vowel.

1) High Front Unrounded Vowels [i:] and [ɪ]

[i:] and [ɪ] are high front unrounded vowels. [i:] sound is produced when the front of the tongue is raised to a height slightly below and behind the close front position; the lips are spread; the tongue is tense, with the side rims making a firm contact with the upper molars (Indriani, 2005, p. 57). For example, tea [ti:]

keen [ki:n], seed [si:d], and tree [tri:]. On the other hand, [ɪ] sound is pronounced

with a part of the tongue nearer to centre than to front raised just above the half-close position; the lips are loosely spread; the tongue is lax with the side rims making a light contact with the upper molars Indriani (2005, p. 59). For example,

sit [sɪt], rich [rɪtʃ], and pit [pɪt].

2) Mid Front Unrounded Vowel[e]

This sound is produced when the front of the tongue is raised between the half-open and half-close positions; the lips are loosely spread and are slightly wider apart than for [ɪ], the tongue may have more tension than in the case of [ɪ], the side rims making a light contact with the upper molars Indriani (2005, p. 60). For example, set [set] went [went] and hen [hen].

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25 3) Low Front Unrounded Vowel [æ]

This sound is pronounced when the mouth is slightly more open than for [e]; the front of the tongue is raised just below the half-open position, with the side rims making a very slight contact with the back upper molars; the lips are neutrally open Indriani (2005, p. 62). For example, sat [sæt], hand [hænd], and

lamp [læmp].

4) Low Front Unrounded Vowel [ʌ]

This sound is articulated with a considerable separation of the jaws and with the lips neutrally open; the centre of the tongue is raised just above the fully open position, no contact being made between the tongue and the upper molars Indriani (2005, p. 63). For example, sun [sʌn], cut [kʌt],and hut [hʌt].

5) Low Back Rounded Vowel [a:] and [ ]

Low back rounded vowels include [a:] and [ ]. [a:] sound is articulated with a considerable separation of the jaws and the lips neutrally open; a part of the tongue between the centre and the back is in the fully open position; no contact being made between the rims of the tongue and the upper molars Indriani (2005, p. 65). For example, pass [pa:s], after [a:ftə], and bath [ba:ө]. Meanwhile, [ ] sound is produced with wide open jaws and slight, open lip-rounding; the back of the tongue is in the fully open position, no contact being made between the tongue and the upper molars Indriani (2005, p. 67). For example, dog [d g], song [s ŋ], and long [l ŋ].

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6) Mid Back Rounded Vowel [ᴐ:]

This sound is articulated with medium lip-rounding; the back of the tongue is raised between the half-open and half-close positions, no contact being made between the tongue and the upper molars (Indriani, 2005, p. 68). For example,

cord [kᴐ:d], horse [hᴐ:s],and corn [kᴐ:n].

7) High Back Rounded Vowels [ʊ] and [u:]

High back rounded vowels are [ʊ] and [u:]. [ʊ] sound is produced with a

part of the tongue nearer to centre than to back raised just above the half-close position; the tongue is laxly held, no firm contact being made between the tongue and the upper molars Indriani (2005, p. 69). For example, put [pʊt], full [fʊl], and

sugar [ʃʊgə]. Therefore, [u:] sound is pronounced when the tongue raising is relaxed from the closest position and is somewhat advanced from true back; the articulation of [u:] being tense though no firm contact is made between the tongue and the upper molars; the lips tend to be closely rounded Indriani (2005, p. 71). For example, food [fu:d], soon [su:n], and moon [mu:n].

8) Central Mid Unrounded Vowels [ :] and [ə]

Central mid unrounded vowels are [ :] and [ə]. [ :] sound is articulated with the centre of the tongue raised between half-close and half-open, no firm contact being made between the tongue and the upper molars; the lips are neutrally spread Indriani (2005, p. 73). For example, first [f :st], girl [g :l], and

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unaccented syllables. Its quality is that of a central vowel with neutral lip position, having in non-final positions a tongue-raising between half-open and half-close Indriani (2005, p. 74). For example, ago [əgəʊ], permit [pəmɪt], and adore [ədᴐ:].

c. Diphthong

Diphthong is a sequence of two sounds, vowel and glide (Fromkin, Rodman, and Hyams, 2003, p. 255). Diphthong is the sequences of vocalic elements which form a glide within one syllable Indriani (2005, p. 76). Figure 2.1 shows the English diphthong sounds which consist of eight sounds.

Fig 2.3 English Diphthong Indriani (2001, p. 77)

Indriani (2001) states that the Received Pronunciation (RP) diphthongs have as their first element sounds in the general region of [ɪ, e, a, ə, ʊ] and for

their second element [ɪ,ʊ,ə]; these elements may be treated as separate phonemic

ʊ

ə

ᴐ

ɪ

ʊ

ɪ

ə

ʊ

I

ə

e

ɪ

FRONT CENTRAL BACK

Close HIGH Half close

MID Half open

LOW open

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entities (p. 76). In the following part, it will be presented the description of each dipthong.

1) Centring Diphthongs [ɪə],[ ə], [ʊə]

According to Indriani (2005), when [ɪə] sound is produced, the tongue glide begins with a tongue position approximately that used for [ɪ], i.e. centralized front half-close, and moves in the direction of the more open variety of [ə] when [ɪ_ə] is final in the word; in non-final positions. The lips are neutral throughout, with a slight movement from spread to open (p. 84). For example, fear [fɪə], near

[nɪə], and era [ɪərə]. Furthermore when [ ə] sound is produced, the tongue glide begins in the half-open front position, i.e. approximately [ ], and moves in the direction of the more open variety of [ə]. Where [ ə] occurs in a syllable closed by a consonant the [ə] element tends to be a mind [ə] type. The lips are neutrally open through-out (p. 86). For example, care [k ə], share [ʃ ə], and dare [d ə].

Meanwhile, Indriani (2001) also stated that when [ʊə] sound is produced, the tongue glides from a tongue position similar to that used for [ʊ] towards the more open type of [ə] which forms the end-point of all three centring diphthongs with, again, a somewhat closer variety of [ə] when the diphthong occurs in a closed syllable. The lips are weakly rounded at the beginning of the glide, becoming neutrally spread as the glide progresses (p. 87). For example, poor [pʊə], pure

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29 2) Closing Fronting Diphthongs [eɪ], [aɪ], [ᴐɪ]

[eɪ], [aɪ], and [ᴐɪ] are closing fronting diphthongs. According to Indriani (2005), when [eɪ] sound is produced, the tongue glide begins from slightly below the half-close front position and moves in the direction of [ɪ], there being a slight closing movement of the lower jaw, the lips are spread (p. 77). For example, late

[leɪt], make [meɪk], and lady [leɪdi]. Furthermore, when [aɪ] sound is produced,

the tongue glide begins at a point slightly behind the front open position, and moves in the direction of the position associated with [ɪ]; the lips change from a neutral to a loosely spread position (p.78). For example, time [taɪm], write [raɪt],

and bite [baɪt]. Meanwhlie, when [ᴐɪ] sound is produced, the tongue glide begins at a point between the back half-open positions and moves in the direction of [ɪ]; the lips are open rounded for the first element, changing to the neutral for the second element (p. 80). For example, oil [ᴐɪl], join [dʒᴐɪn], and coin [kᴐɪn].

3) Closing Backing Diphthongs [əʊ] and [aʊ]

[əʊ] and [aʊ] are closing backing diphthongs. According to Indriani (2005), when [əʊ] sound is produced, the tongue glide begins at a central position, between half-close and half-open, and moves in the direction of [ʊ], there being a slight closing movement of the lower jaw; the lips are neutral for the first element, but have a tendency to round on the second element (p. 81). For example, old [əʊld], home [həʊm], and both [bəʊө]. Therefore, when [aʊ] sound

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is produced, the tongue glide begins at a point between the back and front open positions, slightly more fronted than the position for [a:], and moves in the direction of [ʊ], though the tongue may not be raised higher than the half-close level. The lips change from a neutrally open to a weakly rounded position (p. 82). For example, house [haʊs], sound [saʊnd], and cow [kaʊ].

In addition, Collin and Mees (2003) state that there are two diphthongs in English, first is centring diphthongs which are produced by the movement of the tongue from peripheral to central position, and secondis closing diphthongs which are produced by the position of the tongue from mid or low to high position (p. 98). Furthermore, Collin and Mees (2003) state that the closing diphthongs can be devided into two, namely, fronting and backing diphthong (p. 98). Fronting diphthong is produced by the movement towards a close front vowel. The characteristic of fronting diphthong is end with the sound [ɪ]. There are three sounds which are placed in fronting diphthong. They are the sounds [eɪ] as in the

word aim [eɪm], the sound [aɪ] as in the word ice [aɪs], and the sound [ᴐɪ] in the word oil [ᴐɪl]. Meanwhile, backing diphthong, end with the sound [ʊ], is

produced with the movement towards a close back vowel. There are only two sounds which is placed in backing diphthong. They are the sound [əʊ] as in the word phone [fəʊn] and the sound [aʊ] as in the word sound [saʊnd] (Collins and Mess, 2003, p. 99).

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31 B. Theoretical Framework

In this research, many of the University students of English Language Study Program experience the process of sound change in learning English. As they are also going to be the next English teachers, this research is intended to find out the phenomena of sound change that occurred in the pronunciation of the students of the English Department.

The first problem formulation is to find out the types of English sound change of the students of ELESP whose first language is Papua-Malay dialect. To answer the first research problem, the researcher uses the sound change theory by Crowley (1992). He classifies types of sound change into nine catogories. They are lenition and fortition, sound addition, metathesis, fusion, unpacking, vowel breaking, assimilation, dissimilation, and abnormal sound changes.

Second problem formulation is to see the distribution of the sound change among the students. What types of sound change that frequently occured in the students’ pronunciation.

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CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter will discuss the method of this research, the setting and participants involved, and the instruments for the data collection, data analysis technique, and the research procedure. This will explain clearly how the research was conducted.

A. Research Method

This study has two research aims. First, it attempts to describe the phenomena of sound change that happen in the students’ pronunciation. Second, it seeks the result of the distribution of the sound change.

This research used mixed method research or a combination of qualitative and quantitative method, approaches, or concepts. According to Johnson and Christensen (2011) the qualitative and quantitative parts of a research study might be conducted sequentially (conducting one part first and the other second) to address a research question or a set of related questions (p. 51).

In addition, Ary, Jacobs, and Sorensen, and Razavieh (2010) stated that there are many types of qualitative research including bacis interpretative studies, case studies, document or content analysis, ethnography, grounded theory, historical studies, narrative inquiry, and phenomenological studies (p. 29). In this research, the researcher used the basic interpretative study. Basic interpretative study is a type of qualitative research which provides descriptive accounts targeted to understanding a phenomenon using data that might be collected in a variety of ways such as interviews, observations, and document review.

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Answering the first research question, the researcher used descriptive qualitative because it dealt with data that were discussed in the form of words. According to Seliger and Shohamy (1989), descriptive research concerns with providing descriptions on phenomena that occur naturally without the intervention of an experiment or an artificially contrived treatment (p.116). This method was chosen because this research tried to describe the phenomena of the sound change that occured in the pronunciation of the students of the English Department in Sorong, West Papua.

The data collected in this research were the students' pronunciation. The researcher recorded the students' pronunciation by giving them text to read. The researcher analyzed the recording of the students' pronunciation and transcribed the students' pronunciation into the phonetic transcription.

The data was analyzed by first comparing the phonetic transcription of the students' pronunciation with the phonetic transcription of Pronunciation Longman Dictionary (2008) and Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary (2000). After comparing the phonetic transcription, the researcher analyzed the process of the sound change that occurred in the students' pronunciation. After finding the sound change that occurred in the students' pronunciation, the researcher analyzed the phenomena that occurred on the students' sound change by using the sound change theory by Crowley (1992).

Answering the second problem formulation, the researcher used descriptive statistics to analyzed the data. Descriptive statistics attempts the researher to convey the essential characteristics of the data by arranging the data into a more interpretable form (e.g., by forming frequency distributions and generating graphical displays). The researcher made a list of the types of English sound change that occured in the students’

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pronunciation and summarized it in a table to show the distribution of each sound change type.

B. Research Setting

This study was conducted in Victory University, Sorong West-Papua. The data was collected from the students at the speaking and reading classes of the 4st semester students of English Language Education Study Program of Victory University.

C. Research Participant

The participants in this research were the 4th semester students from the English Language Education Study Program of Victory University who were born and raised within Papua-Malay language. The reason of choosing this group is because they are going to be English teachers and they are still influenced by the mother tongue as they live within the Papua-Malay environment.

D. Research Instruments and Data Gathering Techniques

In order to collect the data to be analyzed, the writer observed and recorded the pronunciation produced by the students in the classroom of speaking and reading class. The students also were given a piece of paper containing some reading passages. After recorded, the data will be summarized into this table.

Table 3.1 The Phonetic Transcription of Students’ Pronunciation. Words The phonetic transcription of students’

(54)

E. Data Analysis

After gaining the data from the recording, the researcher provides three steps in analysing the data. First, after transcribing the recording of the participants’ pronunciation, the researcher compares the phonetic transcription of their pronunciation with the correct phonetic transcription based on Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (2008) and Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary (2000). The researcher uses the table below.

Table 3.2 Comparing the phonetic transcription.

Words Phonetic transcription

Oxford Dictionary Longman Dictionary Students’ pronunciation

Second, to answer the first research problems, the researcher analyses the English sound change phenomena that occurred by using the theory of English sound changes from Crowley (1992). The researcher uses the table below.

Table 3.3 The types of English sound changes by Crowley (1992).

Words Students’ pronunciation L eni ti on an d fort it ion Sou nd add it ion Me ta the si s Fu si on U np acki ng V ow el break ing A ss im il at ion D iss im il a ti on A bn orm a l sound changes

(1)

105

APPENDIX E

THE RESULT OF RESEARCH ANALYSIS

(2)

Table of Lenition Sound Change

Types of Sound Change Words Oxford Dictionary

Longman Dictionary

Students’ Pronunciation

Frequency

Lenition

Weakening sound

Accurate [ækjərət] [ækjərət] [əkʊrət] 7 Cases In 8 words Common [kɒmən] [kɒmən] [kʌmon]

Example [ɪgza:mpl] [ɪgza:mpl] [eksʌmpl] Desire _[dɪzaɪ_ə_ʳ_] _[dɪzaɪ_ə_ʳ_] [dɪsaər]

Path [pa:θ] [pa:θ] [pet]

Theories [θɪərɪz] [θɪərɪz] [teorɪz] Telephone [telɪfəʊn] [telɪfəʊn] [telepon] Without [wɪðaʊt] [wɪðaʊt] [witaʊt]

Syncope

Applied [əplaɪd] [əplaɪd] [əplɪd] 4 Cases in 9 words Appears _[_ə_p_ɪ_ə_ʳ_z] _[_ə_p_ɪ_ə_ʳ_z] [əpərs]

Cases [keɪsɪz] [keɪsɪz] [kesɪz] Combination [kɒmbɪneɪʃn] [kɒmbɪneɪʃn] [kombineʃn] Desire _[d_ɪ_za_ɪ_ə_ʳ_] _[d_ɪ_za_ɪ_ə_ʳ_] [dɪsaər] Information [ɪnfəmeɪʃn] [ɪnfəmeɪʃn] _[info_ʳ_me_ʃ_n] Identify [aɪdentɪfaɪ] [aɪdentɪfaɪ] [ɪdentɪfaɪ]

Native [neɪtɪv] [neɪtɪv] [netɪv]

Pronunciation [prənʌnsɪeɪʃn] [prənʌnsɪeɪʃn] [pronʌnʃeʃən]

Cluster Reduction

Can’t [kʌnt] [kʌnt] [ken] 5 cases in 13 words

Don’t [dəʊnt] [dəʊnt] [don] English [ɪŋglɪʃ] [ɪŋglɪʃ] [ɪŋlɪs]

First [fɜ:st] [fɜ:st] _[f_ə_ʳ_s]

France [fra:nts] [fra:nts] [frens]

Just [ʤʌst] [ʤʌst] [ʤʌs]

Language [læŋgwɪʤ] [læŋgwɪʤ] [leŋwɪʤ] Linguists [lɪŋgwɪsts] [lɪŋgwɪsts] [lɪŋwɪts] Mastered _[ma:st_ə_ʳ_d] _[ma:st_ə_ʳ_d] [mastər]

Most [məʊst] [məʊst] [mos]

Won’t [wəʊnt] [wəʊnt] [won] Sound [saʊnd] [saʊnd] [soʊn] Second [sekənd] [sekənd] [sekən]

(3)

Types of Sound Change

Words Oxford Dictionary

Longman Dictionary

Students’

Pronunciation

Frequency

Fortition

Accurate

[ækj

ə

r

ə

t]

[ækj

ə

r

ə

t]

[əkʊrət] 7 cases in 12 words

Common [kɒmən] [kɒmən] [kʌmon]

Can’t [kʌnt] [kʌnt] [ken]

Forget [fəget] [fəget] [forget]

Individuals [ɪndɪvɪʤʊəlz] [ɪndɪvɪʤʊəlz] [ɪndɪvɪdʊal] Information [ɪnfəmeɪʃn] [ɪnfəmeɪʃn] _[info_ʳ_meʃn] Pronunciation [prənʌnsɪeɪʃn] [prənʌnsɪeɪʃn] [pronʌnʃeʃən] Recognize [rekəgnaɪz] [rekəgnaɪz] [rekonaɪz]

Their _[ðeə_ʳ_] _[ðeə_ʳ_] _[de_ɪ_ʳ_]

Theories [θɪərɪz] [θɪərɪz] [teorɪz]

Young [jʌŋ] [jʌŋ] [joŋ]

Work [wɜ:k] [wɜ:k] _[wo_ʳ_k]

Table of Sound Addition Sound Change

Types of Sound

Change Words

Oxford Dictionary

Longman Dictionary

Students’

Pronunciation

Frequency

Sound

Addition Epenthesis

Several [sevrəl] [sevrəl] [several] 1 case in 2 words Listening [lɪsnɪŋ] [lɪsnɪŋ] [lɪsənɪŋ]

Table of Fusion Sound Change

Types of Sound Change

Words Oxford Dictionary

Longman Dictionary

Students’

Pronunciation

Frequency

Fusion

Also [ɔ:lsəʊ] [ɔ:lsəʊ] [olso] 2 cases in 9

words

About [əbaʊt] [əbaʊt] [əbot]

Don’t [dəʊnt] [dəʊnt] [don]

Noticed [nəʊtisd] [nəʊtisd] [notais]

Only [əʊnlɪ] [əʊnlɪ] [onlɪ]

Progress [prəʊgres] [prəʊgres] [progres]

Spoken [spəʊkən] [spəʊkən] [spokən]

Telephone [telɪfəʊn] [telɪfəʊn] [telepon]

(4)

Table of Unpacking Sound Change

Types of Sound

Change Words

Oxford Dictionary

Longman Dictionary

Students’

Pronunciation

Frequency

Unpacking Because _Learn [bɪkɒz] [bɪkɒz] [bɪkaʊs] 2 cases in 2 _words

[lɜ:n] [lɜ:n] _[le_ə_ʳ_n]

Table of Vowel Breaking Sound Change

Types of Sound

Change Words

Oxford Dictionary

Longman Dictionary

Students’

Pronunciation

Frequency

Vowel Breaking Foreign [fɒrən] [fɒrən] [foreɪn] 2 cases in 2 _words

Noticed [nəʊtisd] [nəʊtisd] [notais]

Table of Assimilation Sound Change

Types of Sound

Change Words

Oxford Dictionary

Longman Dictionary

Students’ Pronunciation

Frequency

ion

Palatali-zation Pronunciation [prənʌnsɪeɪʃn] [prənʌnsɪeɪʃn] [pronʌnʃeʃən] 4 cases in 10 words

Final Devoicing

Appears _[əp_ɪ_ə_ʳ_z] _[əp_ɪ_ə_ʳ_z] [əpərs]

Afraid [əfreɪd] [əfreɪd] [əfreit]

Believe [bɪli:v] [bɪli:v] [bɪli:f]

Does [dʌz] [dʌz] [dʌs]

Have [hæv] [hæv] [hef]

Is [ɪz] [ɪz] [i:s]

Need [ni:d] [ni:d] [ni:t]

Speakers _[spi:kə_ʳ_z] _[spi:kə_ʳ_z] _[spi:kə_ʳ_s]

(5)

Types of Sound Change Words Students’ Pronunciation

Oxford Dictionary

Longman Dictionary

Frequency

Consonant addition Carefully [kerɪfu:li] [keəfuli:] [keəfuli:]

14 cases in 23 words

abnormal Change [ʧeŋs] [ʧeɪnʤ] [ʧeɪnʤ]

Changed [ʧeŋs] [ʧeɪnʤd] [ʧeɪnʤd] Syllable reduction Influences [ɪnfluəns] [ɪnflʊənsɪz] [ɪnflʊənsɪz]

Reported _[r_ɪ_po_ʳ_t] _[r_ɪ_p_ɔ_:_ʳ_t_ɪ_d] _[r_ɪ_p_ɔ_:_ʳ_t_ɪ_d] Palatal to

Alveolar (Fricative, Voiceless)

/ʃ/ to /s/

English [ɪŋlɪs] [ɪŋglɪʃ] [ɪŋglɪʃ]

French [frens] [frenʧ] [frenʧ]

Issue [isu:] [ɪʃu:] [ɪʃu:]

Spanish [spenɪs] [spænɪʃ] [spænɪʃ]

/ʤ/ to /d/ Individuals [ɪndɪvɪdʊal] [ɪndɪvɪʤʊəlz] [ɪndɪvɪʤʊəlz] Interdental

to Alveolar (Fricative to Stop)

/ð/ to /d/ (Voiced)

Their _[de_ɪ_ʳ_] _[ðeə_ʳ_] _[ðeə_ʳ_]

This [dɪs] [ðɪs] [ðɪs]

They [deɪ] [ðeɪ] [ðeɪ]

That [det] [ðət] [ðət]

Low to Mid /a/ to /e/

France [frens] [fra:nts] [fra:nts]

Manage [meneʤ] [mænɪʤ] [mænɪʤ]

Path [pet] [pa:θ] [pa:θ]

Spanish [spenɪs] [spænɪʃ] [spænɪʃ]

/a/ to /o/ sound [soʊn] [saʊnd] [saʊnd]

High to Mid /ɪ/ to /e/

Exposure [eksposju:r] _[_ɪ_ksp_ɔ_:_ʒ_ə_ʳ_] _[_ɪ_ksp_ɔ_:_ʒ_ə_ʳ_]

Manage [meneʤ] [mænɪʤ] [mænɪʤ]

Telephone [telepon] [telɪfəʊn] [telɪfəʊn] Theories [teorɪz] [θɪərɪz] [θɪərɪz]

Lax to Tense

/ɪ/ to /e/

Exposure [eksposju:r] _[_ɪ_ksp_ɔ_:_ʒ_ə_ʳ_] _[_ɪ_ksp_ɔ_:_ʒ_ə_ʳ_]

Manage [meneʤ] [mænɪʤ] [mænɪʤ]

Telephone [telepon] [telɪfəʊn] [telɪfəʊn] Theories [teorɪz] [θɪərɪz] [θɪərɪz]

/ɪ/ to /i:/ If [i:f] [ɪf] [ɪf]

Is [i:s] [ɪz] [ɪz]

Back to

Front /a/ to /e/

France [frens] [fra:nts] [fra:nts]

Path [pet] [pa:θ] [pa:θ]

(6)

Table of Frequency Distribution of the Sound Change

No Types of sound change Cases Frequency Percentage

1 Lenition

 Weakening sound  Syncope

 Cluster reduction Fortition

7 4 5 7

14.6 % 8.3 % 10.4 % 14.6 % 2 Sound Addition

 Ephenthesis 1 2.0 %

3 Fusion 2 4.2 %

4 Unpacking 2 4.2 %

5 Vowel Breaking 2 4.2 %

6 Assimilation 4 8.3 %

7 Abnormal Sound Change 14 29.2 %

The English sound change of English Language Education Study Program Students of Victory University Sorong West Papua.

THE ENGLISH SOUND CHANGE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE

EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM STUDENTS OF VICTORY

UNIVERSITY SORONG WEST PAPUA

A

SARJANA PENDIDIKAN

THESIS

THE ENGLISH SOUND CHANGE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE

EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM STUDENTS OF VICTORY

UNIVERSITY SORONG WEST PAPUA

A

SARJANA PENDIDIKAN

THESIS

Dedicated to:

My Dad

Drs. Yakobus Zakarias Rahamitu.

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APPENDIX E

THE RESULT OF RESEARCH ANALYSIS

[ækj

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[ækj

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