Android Application Model Theoretical Review

Second, flexible use means that the design should provide a wide range of individual abilities, preferences, schedules, levels of connectivity, and choices in methods of use. It allows the devices to provide songs, videos, or pictures. The next is simple and intuitive, which means that unnecessary complexity should be eliminated and the design should be simple and intuitive. Next, perceptible information means it is recommended to add captions, descriptors, and transcriptions. The fifth principle is tolerance of error. It minimizes hazards and adverse consequences of errors in software operation. The next is low physical and technical effort which means that m-learning should be developed requiring a low and physical effort which related to inputting text into devices. Then, for community of learners and support should be facilitated through the development of groups and support from appropriate tools. The last principle is instructional climate, which focuses on the interaction between the instruction and the learners in various forms. b. Mobile Assisted Language Learning MALL As the use of mobile devices in supporting language learning become more rapidly, many educational institutions develop learning model as a communication media. Previously, the use of internet or technology is popularly referred to as CALL Computer Assisted Language Learning. According to Warschauer 1996 states that CALL is an approach to teaching and learning foreign languages through which the computer and computer-based resources such as the internet are used to present, reinforce, and assess material to be learned. Nowadays, the use of internet can be more easily accessed through mobile devices. Another term, MALL Mobile Assisted Language Learning has come to its existence to provide independent and effective learning. MALL has so much in common with CALL Stockwell Hubbard, 2013. Kukulska-Hulme and Shield 2008 define MALL as an access to wireless device network that can communicate with such networks increase, the use of mobile devices in supporting language learning becomes more common. They also differentiate MALL from CALL related to its use of personal, portable devices that enable new ways of learning that emphasize access and interaction in different contexts. Furthermore, MALL deals with the use of mobile technology in language learning Miangah Nezarat, 2012. They state that MALL can be considered an ideal solution to language learning barriers in terms of time and place. In line with the concepts of mobile learning, there are some values related to MALL proposed by Elias 2011. Firstly, MALL delivers content in the simplest possible format equitable use. Secondly, MALL has flexible use package content in small chunks. Thirdly, MALL allows tolerance for error. It scaffolds and supports situated learning methods. Lastly, MALL has instructional climate, for instance push regular reminders, quizzes, and questions to students. Furthermore, since most of the developed mobile media contains software, it is necessary to be in accordance with some principle related to well- designed software in developing mobile language learning. Egbert Hanson- Smith 1999 suggest some characteristics of well-designed software. The first characteristic is related to consistency. It means that the elements on the screen remain stable from one display to the next, such as color, layout, capitalization, and fonts which must be consistent. The second is good use of space. It means that each section of content should fit onto one screen, and the different parts should be distinguished through variations in color, style, or other treatments. The next characteristic is Legibility, which means that the text on the screen must be legible the letter form must be easy to see and readable the lines of text must be easy to scan in normal reading patterns. The fourth is contrast, repetition, alignment, and proximity. It means that different elements should be contrast clearly with each other, whereas logos and navigation buttons should be repeated in order to unify many kinds of screens in the same section. Besides, each element on the screen should be aligned either horizontally or vertically. The next is ease on navigation and recovery, which means that the software should ignore nonsensical commands and provide clear instructions for recovery if users get into trouble. The last is high quality playback, means that the audio and video playback must be high quality sufficiently p.442-445. By considering those characteristics in designing mobile learning media, it enables users to use the software as well. There are some considerations in developing mobile devices into the language learning. Stockwell and Hubbard 2013 propose ten principles as the guideline for developing and implementing mobile language learning. These principles concern with general lessons learned from implementing technology applications in language learning. The first principle is that mobile activities, tasks, and applications should distinguish both the affordances and limitations of the mobile devices and the affordances and limitations of the environment in which the device will be used. Since the goal is on language learning, the affordances and limitations should be connected to the principles in second language learning. The second principle is limiting multi-tasking and environmental distractions. Many people are not good at multi-tasking which can cause stress levels, errors, and lower productivity. Therefore, the mobile environments and activities should be conformed in effective ways. The third principle is pushing, but respecting boundaries. The push mechanism can support the learners to do an action, but the learners also have ideas to understand when and how frequently they will receive the reminders. The fourth principle is striving to maintain equity. It is necessary to know whether the learners have mobile devices, what devices they have, the connectivity, and the expense used. All those factors should be considered to maintain the equity of the learning environment. The next principle is acknowledging and planning for accommodating language learner differences. In developing mobile learning, various kinds of students‟ learning style should be taken into account. Mobile learning should provide various learner styles so that all learners can learn comfortably. Next, the sixth principle is being aware of language learners‟ existing uses and cultures of use for their devices. Students generally used their mobile devices for personal use and social media rather than for educational tools. Consequently, the application should be more consistent to provide useful task so that the students can accept and use it well. The next principle is keeping mobile language learning activities and tasks short and brief when possible. The tasks should be designed in smaller and coherent chunks so that learners will get access into the task easily. In addition, the tasks should be dealt with the learning goals and objectives in the syllabus. The eighth principle is letting the language learning task fit the technology and environment, and vice versa. The tasks should consider the mobility of the learners as well as of the technology, the time allocation, the skills to be concerned with, the technology that are used and also the environment where learners do the tasks library, classroom, or students‟ homes. Next, the ninth principle is that some or possibly most learners need guidance and training to effectively use mobile devices for language learning. In using mobile language, learning will face some challenges. However, the implementation of the mobile language learning is in the hands of the mobile users. Therefore, the learners need to be informed and trained to use it as efficient as possible. The last principle is recognizing and accommodating multiple stakeholders. In implementing mobile language learning, it is necessary to provide preparation and motivational support for teachers as well as learners by involving other parties including the principal and the parents. Those ten principles can be used as guidance to design and develop a mobile application, which is in line with the learner needs, and the context where the mobile assisted language learning is implemented. c. Android Nowadays, the use of mobile phone among people all over the world has been popped up rapidly. Phone is no longer used as a means of communication, but also as essential part of people‟s lifestyle. Therefore, the emergence of mobile phone has changed into smartphones. There are so many various kinds of applications which is interesting and fun for people‟s life. Mobile phones such as smart phones and tablets use Android as the Operating System Android Os. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI Recently, Android is familiar operating system used by many people. The detailed information related to Android will be elaborated as follows. 1 The Nature of Android The latest mobile software platform which merely used by people is Android. Android is an operating system which designed for touchscreen mobile devices. Cabanban 2013 states that Android is an open source mobile operating system that has been supported by Google Corporation. It is developed by Android, Inc., in which Google backed financially and later bought in 2005. According to Google‟s Andy Rubin, as cited in Meier 2012 describes Android as: “The first truly open and comprehensive platform for mobile devices. It includes an operating system, user-interface and applications — all of the software to run a mobile phone but without the proprietary obstacles that have hindered mobile innovation”. In addition, Skogberg 2010 defines Android as a software environment and not a hardware platform, which includes an OS, built on Linux kernel-based OS hosting the Dalvik virtual machine. It runs Android application as instances of the virtual machine. Android was unveiled in 2007 along with the founding of the Open Handset Alliance: a consortium of hardware, software, and telecommunication companies devoted to advancing open standards for mobile devices. According to Jones 2011, phones which running on Android feature advanced capabilities that encourage third-party applications. In contrast to Apple‟s iOS, Android does not run on a single phone offered by a particular company Godwin-Jones 2011. Recently, Android has been run many mobile device manufacturers, including Samsung, Sony Ericsson, LG, Dell, Huawei, Fujitsu Toshiba, Motorola, Panasonic, Acer, Asus, NEC, Kyocera, and others. Android phone is a standard Smartphone. It is called smartphone since it refers to the same as personal computers with separate operating system which installed by the user software, games and other third-party service provider process. Jiaqi, Jianhua, and Long 2012 state that the operating system is the basis of Smartphone platform which provides the process of scheduling, task manager, file systems, network protocols and the phone peripherals such as keyboards, LCD, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi and other tool management. It has a direct relationship between product stability, cost, and development prospects. Since Android smartphones become very popular among people of various ages, especially students, they often use their smartphones for social medias, internet browsing, or chatting. Android system is completely open to anyone who wants to download the free code to develop and design the mobile devices with its own mobile terminal. It is supported by Google which is a recent addition in the mobile application platform. By providing an open development platform, Android offers developers the ability to build extremely rich and innovative applications with a rich set of User Interfaces, support for broad range audio and video file formats. As explained in the previous section, Android is an open source mobile operating system such as smartphones and tablet computers. Android provides a lot of applications which can be accessed by users freely. There are many kinds of applications which can be downloaded and installed through Google Play store. The applications in the play store are divided into several categories, such as games, books and reference, comics, communication, education, entertainment, finance, health and fitness, libraries and demo, lifestyle, live wallpaper, media and video, medical, music audio, news and magazines, personalization, photography, productivity, shopping, social, sports, tools, transportation, travel and local, weather, and widgets. All users can download them based on their personal needs and they are able to set up their applications as they want. Therefore, android application brings a lot of benefits for everyone who want to utilize. In line with the advanced development of android application, many educational developer utilized technology such as Android smartphones as a media in educational sector. As we know that there are a lot of applications in Google play store categorized as education, for instance AutoMath Photo, Duolingo: Learn Languages free, Animal sounds –App for kids, Learn Korean – KR Translator, Learn English 6000, ABC Preschool, Learn Japanese, Learn Guitar, English Grammar, Prediksi Soal UN SMP, Kids Coloring Fun, and many more. If the students use the educational application well, it can help them to learn many subject using those applications. A study conducted by Chan cited in Cabanban 2013 said that it is important for providers of mobile academic content and information to understand the following characteristics: First, mobile learning addresses the urgency of individual information acquisition and learning needs. Second, the initiative of knowledge acquisition is based on an information seeker‟s request and the information is obtained immediately. Third, a mobile learning setting enables information seeking and learning to occur when and where it best fits individual needs. Fourth, interactivity of the learning process is provided through wireless devices. Learners and information seekers are provided PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI broader access to experts e.g., librarians, instructors, etc. and knowledge than is available through other distance learning technology. Fifth, activities are situated instructional activities in a way that extends learning and information seeking into natural, authentic, and contextual situations of an individual‟s personal life. Finally, instructional content e.g., information resources, activities, etc. is integrated into mobile device use wirelessly. Therefore, Android application nowadays can be used as a learning media in teaching and learning process since it is flexible and effective to learn English. Thus, it is a great chance for the developer to create new android applications as a learning media since there is no licensing and development fees. It will be an interesting learning media for students because it is a flexible and effective way to learn in educational environment. 2 Android Development Program In creating Android application, developers need to create a corresponding Android project. There are several ways to create an Android application, such as Programming language Java, Eclipse Integrated Development Environment IDE, App Inventor, and others. This research focused on developing Android application mobile learning model by using App Inventor. The reason why the researcher using App Inventor is because it is easy to operate for those who have no knowledge of programming language. App inventor is a web-based software used to create an Android application for non- expert developers who do not have any knowledge of programming. It is an open- source web application provided by Google and Massachusetts Institute of Technology MIT. Bhagi 2012 also defines that AppInventor is a web-based tool developed by MIT and Google that allow users to build Android apps via visual, block-based development environment without any knowledge of programming language. App Inventor can be accessed by typing http:ai2.appinventor.mit.edu on web browser to build an android application. Before the developers build the application using this program, they should understand the architecture in the App Inventor. The architecture of App Inventor consists of App Inventor Server, App Inventor Designer, App Inventor Block Editor, and Android Emulator. The following Figure shows the architecture of App Inventor proposed by Kim and Modell 2012. Figure 2.1. The Architecture of App Inventor The App Inventor Server keep s the developers‟ work and help them to keep track of a project. Then, The App Inventor Designer creates interface of the users‟ own application and put them together from its functional components, i.e. Basic, Media, Animation, Social, and Sensor. It is applied as a web application by entering appropriate web address. After the developers work on the design of the applications, the App Inventor Block Editor is used to specify how the components of App Inventor Designer should behave. In this component, it consists of codes like pieces of puzzles. After finishing all components, the developers package the application and produce stand-alone application to install. Then, the developers can build the application by using Android emulator. It is a software that runs on the computer and behaves like phones. It is used to test the application on a virtual phone. There are two major parts in developing Android application using AppInventor, developers should understand the components in it. As stated by Tyler 2012 cited in Kim and Modell 2012 state that App Inventor is a mobile applications design tool that consists of two major parts; component designer and Block Editor. First, the Component Designer provides the components to design the application. It will be presented in Figure 2.2. below. Figure 2.2. App Inventor Designer Figure 2.2 above presents the home page of the Component Designer page. It consists of User Interface, Layout, Media, and Social. User Interface, Layout, Media, Drawing and Animation, Sensors, Social, Storage, and Connectivity. Meanwhile, the second part is Block Editor. It is used to give instructions to the components of the application. The developers put in the program blocks which look like puzzles. The following Figure 2.3. shows the example of the Blocks screen. Figure 2.3. The Blocks of a screen in App Inventor

3. High School Context

Related to high school context, it includes the students itself as the users of android application, the curriculum used in designing the application, and the role of the materials in the application which is as core and supplementary materials. Those theories related to high school context will be elaborated as follows. a. Students As mobile technology has entered into the mainstream society, it influences people‟s lifestyle in recent years, especially teenagers. Teenagers, especially students, use smartphones such as Android smartphones or tablets in their daily activities. The students nowadays belongs to digital native. This term was introduced by Marc Prensky 2001 which refers to the students today are all „native speakers‟ of the digital language of computers, video games, and Internet. Digital native means that young people born in the last two decades which have always been surrounded by and interated with new technologies. He explains that Digital Natives are used to receiving information really fast because they are able to do multi-tasking. The other term is called Digital Immigrants. Digital Immigrants should adapt and learn to the new environment using emerging technologies rather than seeing them as natural tools as part of their given world. Furthermore, Helsper Eynon 2009 defines the characteristics in determining people whether they are Digital Native or not, by considering age, experience, and breadth of use. Related to age, the determination refers to the youngest generation who has grown up with technology and does not know any other context. Meanwhile, experience refers to those who have been using internet for the longest period of time, while they might not have grown up with the Internet when they are young. Related to breadth of use, it refers to those who integrate Internet into all aspects of their everyday life. Since the students nowadays are the Digital Native, the research focuses on developing an m-learning model using android application to learn speaking. The users of the application is the eleventh grade students of senior high school. The senior high school students belongs to teenagers who have ages range from 15 – 18 years old. Brown 2001:92 states that teens are an age of transition, confusion, self consiousness, growing and changing bodies and minds. They are more capable in the higher levels of reasoning and abstract throught than younger students. b. Curriculum Teaching and learning English in senior high school cannot be separated from the curriculum. In Indonesia, every English teaching and learning process has to be held based on the standard competency and basic competence proposed by the national ministry of education. Mulyasa 2008: 109 declares that related to school-based curriculum, National Education Department has prepared standard of competence and basic competency for every subject, that is used as a guide for the teachers in developing the school-based curriculum in every school. The School-Based Curriculum is defined as an operational curriculum which is developed and implemented in each school Badan Standar Nasional Pendidikan BSNP. The purpose of the School-Based Curriculum for English lesson in Senior High School SMAMA is to develop communicative competence in spoken and written English through the development of the related skills BSNP, 2006. The followings are the standard of competence and basic competency of senior high school grade XI. Table 2.3. Standard of competence and basic competence of senior high school grade XI BNSP, 2006 Standard of competence Basic competence Semester 1 3. Expressing the meaning of formal and sustained transactional and interpersonal conversation in everyday life context. 3.1.Expressing meaning in formal and informal transactional to get things done and interpersonal socialization conversation accurately, fluently, and acceptably using oral language in everyday life context and involving speech act of expressing opinion, asking opinion, expressing satisfaction and dissatisfaction continued PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI Table 2.2 continued 3.2. Expressing meaning in formal and informal transactional to get things done and interpersonal socialization conversation accurately, fluently, and acceptably using oral language in everyday life context and involving speech act of giving advice, warning, granting request, and expressing relief, pain and pleasure Semester 2 9. Expressing the meaning of formal and sustained transactional and interpersonal conversation in everyday life context. 9.1.Expressing meaning in formal and informal transactional to get things done and interpersonal socialization conversation accurately, fluently, and acceptably using oral language in everyday life context and involving speech act of expressing attitude, expressing love, and expressing sadness. 9.2.Expressing meaning in formal and informal transactional to get things done and interpersonal socialization conversation accurately, fluently, and acceptably using oral language in everyday life context and involving speech act of expressing embarrassment, anger, and annoyance. The level of English accomplishments of SMA students should achieve three levels, namely performative, functional, and informational. The focus of English lesson in SMA is to achieve informational level since students are prepared for continuing their study to a higher education level. Based on BSNP Badan Standar Nasional Pendidikan, the aims of English lesson in SMA are to develop communicative competence in oral and written forms to reach the level of informational literacy. They have awareness about the nature and importance of English for improving nation competitiveness in the global community, and develop an understanding of students about the relationship between languages with classroom. c. Core and Supplementary Materials The designed materials in this research refer to supplementary materials. Tomlinson 1998 defines supplementary materials as materials which is designed to be used to the core materials of a course. Another definition, McGrath 2002:80 defines supplementary materials as the materials taken from another source or any other materials which is designed for learning purposes. It means that adding something new to provide additional materials in order to supplement the coursebook or textbook. When teachers find out that there are no suitable or relevant materials that can be found in published textbooks, they might use supplementary materials to be used in teaching and learning process. Supplementary materials are designed to help the learners understand better. McGrath 2002 explains the reasons why teachers use other materials rather than the textbook. First, teachers try to span the gap between textbook and syllabus or students‟ needs. Second, teachers use supplementary materials since the students need to expose the wide range of textual materials or have more practice. Last, teachers need to supplement a coursebook in order to provide various language competence levels or different needs. In addition, Richard 2005 cited in Vinh 2011 explains the significance of supplementary materials by claiming that when a textbook has some limitations, it should be modified or supplemented to help teachers use them effectively.

4. Instructional Design Model

Instructional design model is used to design the learning media in this research. The theories of instructional design were needed to help the researcher