A PRAGMATIC ANALYSIS OF ILLOCUTIONARY ACT PERFORMED BY THE MAIN CHARACTERS IN ALAN POUL’S THE BACK-UP PLAN MOVIE.

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Attainment of a Sarjana Sastra Degree in English Language and Literature

By:

Fahma Chimayasari 11211141011

ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE STUDY PROGRAM ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

FACULTY OF LANGUAGES AND ARTS YOGYAKARTA STATE UNIVERSITY

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(Q.S. Al-Mujadilah 58:1)

“BE INITIATIVE!”

“Tell me and I forget. Teach me and I remember. Involve me and I learn.” (Benjamin Franklin)

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The ones who are never tired of loving, supporting, caring, and praying for me,

Bapak Ahmad Dartono A.M.

and Ibu

Mahmudah,

Thank you for your patience…

The ones who always give me strength to keep on going,

Hamda ‘Aliya Nurutsani

and

Muhammad Anggit Pratama,

The one who is already in heaven…

Muhammad Syifaurrohman,

And the ones who always give me their loyalty and unbreakable friendship,

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love without which I would have never been able to finish this thesis. I would also like to express my sincerest gratitude to the following people.

First of all, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my first consultant Dr. Margana M. Hum, M.A., and my second consultant Paulus Kurnianta, M.Hum., who have shared their valuable time, knowledge, and guidance with all their patience and wisdom during the completion of this thesis.

I am indebted to my academic consultant Titik Sudartinah, M.A., and all my lecturers who have taught me well and given me valuable knowledge. Moreover, a million of thanks go to my beloved parents, Bapak Ahmad Dartono A.M. and Ibu Mahmudah, my younger sister Hamda ‘Aliya Nurutsani and my younger brother Muhammad Anggit Pratama, for their never ending love, prayer, and patience for every single step I take in my life.

My huge gratitude is also expressed to my beloved comrades in English Literature A 2011 and Linguistics 2011 who have accompanied me and given me a lot of things to share, materially and mentally, during the process of writing this thesis. I would also like to devote my great appreciation to my closest friends Puput Suryani, Dyah Intan, Nurokayati, and Eristin Setiabudi, for always supporting, accompanying, and giving me a place to come by during the process of finishing my thesis.

Finally, I realize that this thesis is far from being perfect. Therefore, I would gratefully accept any constructive comments, feedback, and suggestions for the betterment of this study. Hopefully, this study will give some beneficial contributions to the readers.

Yogyakarta, 14 December 2015

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RATIFICATION SHEET ... iii

SURAT PERNYATAAN ... iv

MOTTOS ... v

DEDICATIONS ... vi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ... vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... viii

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES ... xi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ... xii

ABSTRACT ... xiii

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ... 1

A. Background of the Study ... 1

B. Research Focus... 6

C. Objectives of the Study ... 7

D. Significance of the Study ... 8

E. Operational Definitions ... 9

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW ... 10

A. Literature Review ... 10

1. Pragmatics ... 10

2. Context ... 11

3. Speech Act ... 13

a. The Definitions of Speech Act ... 13

b. The Classification of Speech Act ... 13

1) Locutionary Act ... 14

2) Illocutionary Act ... 14

3) Perlocutionary Act ... 14

4. Illocutionary Act ... 15

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3) Expressive ... 19

4) Directive ... 20

5) Commissive ... 21

d. The Functions of Illocutionary Act ... 22

1) Competitive ... 22

2) Convivial ... 22

3) Collaborative ... 23

4) Conflictive ... 23

5. Movie ... 23

a. The Definitions of Movie ... 23

b. The Back-up Plan ... 24

B. Previous Studies ... 26

C. Conceptual Framework ... 27

D. Analytical Construct... 29

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODS ... 30

A. Research Type ... 30

B. Form, Context, and Source of Data ... 30

C. Research Instrument ... 31

D. Techniques of Data Collection ... 33

E. Techniques of Data Analysis ... 33

F. Trustworthiness of the Data ... 34

CHAPTER IV RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ... 36

A. Research Findings ... 36

1. The Types of Illocutionary Act Performed by the Main Characters in Alan Poul’s The Back-up Plan Movie ... ... 36

2. The Functions of Illocutionary Act Performed by the Main Characters in Alan Poul’s The Back-up Plan Movie ... 39

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Characters in Alan Poul’s The Back-up Plan Movie ... 78

CHAPTER V CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS ... 86

A. Conclusion ... 86

B. Suggestions ... 87

REFERENCES ... 89

APPENDIX ... 91

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Table 1 : Data Sheet of Types and Functions of Illocutionary Act Performed by the Main Characters in Alan Poul’s The Back-up Plan Movie ... 31

Table 2 :The Types of Illocutionary Act Performed by the Main Characters in

Alan Poul’s The Back-up Plan Movie ... 37

Table 3 : Illocutionary Forces Performed by the Main Characters in Alan Poul’s The Back-up Plan Movie ... 38

Table 4 : The Functions of Illocutionary Act Performed by the Main Characters in Alan Poul’s The Back-up Plan Movie ... 39

xii Di : Directive

Ex : Expressive Co : Commissive

P : Participants S : Setting T : Topic

IA/S-/P/D-/T/F

IA : Illocutionary Act S : Scene

P : Page D : Data T : Type F : Function

xiii ABSTRACT

This study aims to analyze illocutionary act performed by the main characters in a movie entitled The Back-up Plan. The objectives of this study are (1) to identify

the types of illocutionary act and (2) to reveal the functions of illocutionary act performed by the main characters in the movie.

The study applied the descriptive qualitative method with the researcher as the main instrument and the data sheets as the secondary instrument. The discussion was presented in a descriptive way. The data were utterances in the form of words, phrases, and sentences spoken by the main characters in the movie. After being collected, the data were organized and analyzed based on Searle and Leech’s theory of illocutionary act. To gain the trustworthiness of the data in this study, triangulation was applied.

This study reveals some findings. First, there are four types of illocutionary act performed by the main characters in the movie. They are representative act, directive act, expressive act, and commissive act. Representative act is found as the most dominant type performed by the main characters. The main characters employ representative act to convey their ideas to each other. On the other hand, declarative act is not performed by the main characters in the movie since performing felicitous declarative act needs particular authorities and circumstances. Second, there are three functions of illocutionary act performed by the main characters in this movie. They are collaborative function, competitive function, and convivial function. The most dominant function performed by the main characters is collaborative function since it is intended to tell the truth of the main characters’ feelings to each other. Meanwhile, conflictive function is not performed by the main characters since it is intended to offend the hearer.

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Language is an inseparable part of human’s life. Its role is inevitably crucial to ease people’s intentions in delivering messages. People socialize to each other in their life by conducting communication through language. It is important in human’s life as it facilitates people to interact with each other. By means of communication, people are able to transfer information, exchange ideas, share feelings, and convey messages to each other. In this regard, language is an important means in communication.

Mukalel (2003: 1) defines language as a greatly dynamic, active, and complex process in which several agents and components are engaged. People generally use language verbally or orally to serve many significant roles. It facilitates human to exchange ideas, thoughts, desire, or simply to express their feelings. The way people utilize language is different. It depends on the contexts and circumstances in which the language is used.

Language is not only used to ease people’s communication but can also be used to identify people’s social status, education level, and the like. People coming from the higher levels of education utilize language differently from those coming from the lower levels. They utilize language to reveal their social status or educational levels. In other words, someone’s social status or educational background reflects the way he

or she utilizes language. Therefore, people who share the same background tend to use the same way in using language.

Language can be studied by employing many approaches. One of the approaches that can be employed to study language is pragmatic approach. Leech (1983: 1) defines pragmatics as the study of how language is used in communication. When people attempt to express themselves, they do not merely produce utterances which contain grammatical structures and words. Besides, people also perform actions via their utterances which are generally called speech act. In analyzing speech act, pragmatic study can be applied. According to Yule (1996: 3), this type of study unavoidably requires the interpretation of what people intend in a particular context and how the context affects what is said. People need to consider the context in which the language is used. Thus, pragmatics is the study of language in context.

Considering the contexts in which a language is performed is important. Yule (1996: 21) defines context as the physical environment in which a word is used. It is a background knowledge which is assumed to be shared by a speaker and a hearer. Context takes part on how the hearer comes to an interpretation of what the speaker means in his or her utterance. Hence, context is vital in studying speech act. The importance of analyzing speech act by considering the context is inevitable.

Yule (1996: 47) defines speech act as the actions which are performed via utterances. Speech act contains the speaker’s communicative intentions and functions to deliver them to the hearer. An utterance cannot be considered as a performance of speech act if it does not function properly to convey certain intention of its speaker.

By means of speech act, language influences people and their behavior. Therefore, performing speech act is not simply an action of making an utterance. It also may convey the speaker’s certain intention which underlies the speech that he or she produces.

Speech act that people utilize can be performed through any ways, of any reasons, and for any purposes. It can be traced from the way a language user structures and arranges his or her speech. The purpose may be to give arguments, persuade or even transport personal perspectives. Hence, the functions of speech act are unlimited.

According to Austin (1962: 98), there are three types of speech act in producing an utterance. They are locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary act. The basic element of an utterance or the production of a meaningful linguistic expression is called as a locutionary act. Illocutionary act is performed via the communicative force of an utterance. On the other hand, the perlocutionary act of an utterance deals with the effect on the hearer.

Austin (1962: 108) further explains that performing a locutionary act is forcefully equivalent to uttering a certain sentence with a certain sense and reference. It is also forcefully equivalent to ‘meaning’ in traditional sense. When someone performs a locutionary act, he or she also performs a certain illocutionary act. Actions such as informing, ordering, warning, and undertaking are some examples of illocutionary act. Meanwhile, the perlocutionary act of an utterance deals with what we bring about in saying that utterance, such as convincing, persuading, deterring, and even surprising or misleading.

The second type of speech act based on Austin’s categorization (1962) is illocutionary act. It is the function of the word, the specific purpose that the speakers have in mind. Searle (1969: 23-24) defines illocutionary act as the acts of uttering words in sentences under certain circumstances, in certain contexts, and for certain purposes. It also deals with certain intentions or forces that a speaker tries to deliver through his performance of speech acts.

As locutionary act can be defined as the surface of the utterance itself, illocutionary act is more about the actual meaning implied than what is orally said. According to Cutting (2002: 16), the most important study from the three kinds of speech act is the study of illocutionary act. It becomes the basic analysis in pragmatic comprehension.

The phenomena of illocutionary act is not only seen in real life but it is also found in a movie. A movie or a film is defined as a series of moving pictures recorded with sounds that tells a story, shown on television or at the cinema/movie theater (Hornby, 2000: 496). A movie is used as a manifestation of human’s life which can reflect the use of illocutionary act as a means to deliver people’s intentions in transferring information.

The characters in a movie use language by performing speech act in their dialogues. They use speech act to deliver their intentions or simply to express their feelings. In a movie, language represents the ways people actually talk. Hence, even though the language in a movie is scripted, it appears to be the most representative in

actual language use. In this respect, the researcher uses a movie entitled The Back-up Plan as the object of the study to explore the usage of illocutionary act.

The Back-up Plan tells about the life of Zoe as the main character who tries to

deal with her dream of becoming a single mother by means of artificial insemination. Zoe thinks that by being a single parent, she will not have to experience the pain of love and complex relationship as she does not want to be involved in any case of love. However, the plan does not run as she expects. On the way back home after getting inseminated, she meets a guy named Stan and gradually falls in love with him.

There are several factors why this movie is selected as the object of this research. First, the researcher is interested in the way the two main characters are engaged in a relationship even though they are often involved in a conflict. The problems faced by the main characters appear within their utterances. Second, the conversations of the two main characters which mainly discuss how they overcome the problems in their relationship are interesting to be observed. Moreover, the conversations of the main characters represent people’s daily conversation. The language of the main characters employs various types of speech act, particularly illocutionary act. Hence, this study analyzes the illocutionary act performed by the main characters in The Back-up Plan

movie to explore the types and the functions of illocutionary act used by the main characters in the movie.

B. Research Focus

According to Searle (1975), there are five types of illocutionary act: declarative, representative, expressive, directive, and commissive illocutionary act. Each of the five types is used differently in certain contexts, under certain circumstances, and for certain purposes. Moreover, Leech (1983) divides illocutionary act into four functions based on social purpose: competitive, convivial, collaborative, and conflictive. Considering the theories above, the researcher identifies, delimits, and formulates the problems of the study by relating the object of the study to the theories applied.

In The Back-up Plan movie, Zoe and Stan, serving as the two main characters,

were described as an unmarried couple who tried to deal with their life as they were going to be parents and they didn’t feel ready for it. Zoe was declared pregnant only in a short time after she dated Stan. This situation set her to be complicated on how she tried to convince Stan that everything would be fine even though he would soon become a father. Things worse when Stan found out that Zoe was actually carrying twins and the babies were not his. However, both Zoe and Stan were two persons with a lot of things to say. They liked to talk about the problems that they were facing by having tight discussions. They often had a discussion to solve their problems. The complicated ways in which Zoe and Stan tried to maintain their relationship and overcome their problems explored specific language use. Both of the two main characters utilized illocutionary act with certain implicit meanings in their utterances to convey message to each other and to achieve the social functions of the utterances that they produce.

Based on the identification of the problems above, the researcher comes to the limitation of this research in order to gain the focus of this research. This study is limited only on identifying and describing the illocutionary act performed by the main characters in The Back-up Plan movie based on John R. Searle and Geoffrey N.

Leech’s theories. The main concerns are the types and the functions of the illocutionary act performed by the main characters in The Back-up Plan movie.

Therefore, based on the identification and the limitation of the study above, the researcher formulates the observed problem as presented below.

1. What are the types of illocutionary act performed by the main characters in Alan Poul’s The Back-up Plan movie?

2. What are the functions of the employment of illocutionary act by the main characters in Alan Poul’s The Back-up Plan movie?

C. Objectives of the Study

Based on the formulation of the study, the objectives are:

1. to identify the types of illocutionary act performed by the main characters in Alan Poul’s The Back-up Plan movie, and

2. to find out the functions of the employment of illocutionary act by the main characters in Alan Poul’s The Back-up Plan movie.

D. Significance of the Study

By conducting this study, the researcher expects that the findings enrich the research in the pragmatic field, particularly speech act. Regarding the background and the objectives, this research confers theoretical and practical significance.

Theoretically, this research presents significance to enrich the findings of illocutionary act under pragmatic study. Illocutionary act is an important topic in speech act that can be analyzed using pragmatic approach. The researcher hopes that this research is contributory to understand illocutionary act under the scope of pragmatics. Moreover, this research can be used as a reference to the readers and resource for the next relevant type of research.

This study confers practical significance to be beneficial to the readers of the study and the students of English Language and Literature study program. For the readers of the study, this research can directly give more information on how and why illocutionary act is performed in communication. It can be useful for people who are interested in the study of speech act, particularly illocutionary act, which are performed in a movie, a talk show, or other media.

For the students of English Language and Literature study program, this research confers benefits for the students of English Language and Literature as an authentic source of the study involving illocutionary act. Besides, this research also gives deeper understanding for the students in analyzing illocutionary speech act performed in any kind of performance, particularly movie, based on linguistics and to inspire

other researchers to develop and conduct other study under the same subject with different object.

E. Operational Definitions 1. Pragmatics

Pragmatics is the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker or writer, and interpreted by a listener or reader (Yule, 1996: 3).

2. Speech Act

Speech act is actions which are performed via utterances (Yule, 1995: 47). 3. Context

Nunan (1993: 7) defines context as a vital element that refers to the situation which giving rise to the discourse.

4. Illocutionary Act

Yule (1996: 48) defines illocutionary act as the utterances with some kind of function in mind.

5. Illocutionary Force

Yule (1995: 48) defines illocutionary force as the communicative purpose or force of an utterance.

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framework, and analytical construct. Literature review provides the relevant theories while the summary of the previous research is provided in the subtopic of previous studies. Conceptual framework and analytical construct of the research are presented in the latter part of the chapter.

A. Literature Review 1. Pragmatics

Human communicates with each other through language. The use of language in human’s communication cannot be separated from its context. The study of language in contextual meaning is called pragmatics. Yule (1996:3) states that pragmatics is concerned with the study of interpreting the meaning of what is being communicated by a speaker. It deals with the analysis of what people mean by their utterances than what the words or phrases might mean by themselves. Levinson (1983:5) states that pragmatics is a study of language usage. It is the study of the relation between language and context which are essential to an account of language understanding. In other words, pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning.

Yule (1996: 4) defines pragmatics as the study of the relationship between linguistic forms and the users of those forms. By studying language via pragmatics, someone is able to identify people’s intended meanings, their purposes or goals, and

the kinds of actions that they are performing when they talk. Furthermore, as the study of hidden meaning which is not actually said or written, pragmatics necessarily involves interpretation of what people mean in a particular context and how the context influences what is said. It requires the consideration of how speakers organize what they want to say, whom they are talking to, and the setting and the situation when the talk occurs.

Pragmatics also explores how listeners can make inferences about what is said in order to arrive at an interpretation of the speaker’s intended meaning. This type of study investigates how the hidden meaning intended by the speaker can be recognized by the hearer. A speaker or writer must be able to depend on their purposes and the types of action that they are performing. Thus, their intended meaning can be successfully delivered to the hearer.

In brief, pragmatics is the study of language in context. Therefore, based on the description of pragmatics explained above, this research conducts pragmatic study to reveal the use of illocutionary act by the main characters in a movie entitled The Back-up Plan.

2. Context

A crucial aspect in studying pragmatics is context. According to Nunan (1993: 7), context refers to the situation giving rise to the discourse, and within which the discourse is embedded. In other words, context is background knowledge that is assumed to be shared by a speaker and a hearer and which contributes to the hearer’s

interpretation of what the speaker means in his or her utterance. This unit examines how factors such as time, place, and social relationship between the speaker and the hearer affect the ways in which language is used to perform various functions.

In producing a sentence or an utterance, people must also understand the context in which the sentence or the utterance is performed to fully understand its meaning. According to Holmes (2001: 8), the participant, the setting, the topic, and the purpose of the conversation have to be considered by the speakers to effectively convey the message to other participants.

Furthermore, Cutting (2002: 3) explains that there are three sorts of contexts to be observed in a conversation. They are presented below.

(a) the situational context, it is what speakers know about what they can see around them;

(b) the background knowledge, what they know about each other and the world; (c) the co-textual context, what they know about what they have been saying. In pragmatic study, context is a vital element. Mey (1993:58) asserts that a pragmatic thing is under the context bound. This means that someone always operates in context to understand the implied meaning of an utterance. Context plays great role in someone’s interpretation of an utterance and how he or she determines between the literal meaning and the implied meaning of the utterance.

In addition, Leech (1983:13) also characterizes that a context has great influences in understanding the meaning of an utterance. A speaker and the addressee share their background in understanding the utterance through a context. The communication

between them can be successful if the hearer is able to interpret the intended meaning delivered by the speaker correctly. In other words, the same background knowledge can assist the addressee in interpreting the meaning intended by the speaker.

To sum up, the role of context in studying pragmatics is important. By considering the context in which a language is performed, the information or idea can be transferred and interpreted successfully.

3. Speech Act

a. The Definitions of Speech Act

Searle (1976:16) asserts that speaking a language can also be regarded as performing speech act. It needs the production of the symbol, word or sentence in a performance of speech act. Therefore, speech act is the basic minimal units of linguistic communication. Moreover, Yule (1996:47) states that in attempting to express something, people do not only produce utterances containing grammatical structures and words but they also perform actions via those utterances. Actions performed via utterances are generally called speech act. In English, speech act is commonly given more specific names such as apology, complaint, compliment, invitation, promise, or request.

b. The Classification of Speech Act

1) Locutionary Act

According to Austin (1969: 108), performing a locutionary act is roughly equivalent to uttering a certain sentence with a certain sense and reference. It is the acts of saying something in the full sense of ‘say’. On the other hand, Yule (1996: 48) defines locutionary act as the basic act of utterances of producing a meaningful linguistic expression. Yule proposes an example in the utterance “I have just made some coffee”. The locutionary act of the utterance is that the speaker simply utters that he or she just made some coffee.

2) Illocutionary Act

Austin (1969: 108) defines illocutionary act as an utterance which has a certain force. It can also be said that illocutionary act refers to the intention behind the act of saying something. Meanwhile, Searle (1985: 1) defines illocutionary act as the minimal unit of human communication. It is performed via the communicative force of an utterance such as stating, requesting, and apologizing. In Yule’s example “I have just made some coffee”, the speaker makes an offer or a statement. There are some other examples of illocutionary act such as ordering, apologizing, offering, giving permission, betting, vowing, and proposing.

3) Perlocutionary Act

According to Austin (1969: 108), perlocutionary act is what people bring about or achieve by saying something such as convincing, persuading, surprising, and misleading. For example, by saying “I have just made some coffee”, the speaker

performs perlocutionary act of causing the hearer to account for a wonderful smell, or to get the hearer to drink some coffee.

On the other hand, Searle (1969: 23-24) starts with the notion that when a person speaks, he or she performs three different acts. They are utterance act, propositional act, and illocutionary act. Utterance act consists of uttering strings of words. Meanwhile, propositional act and illocutionary act consist of uttering words in sentences in certain context, under certain condition, and with certain intention.

4. Illocutionary Act

a. The Definitions of Illocutionary Act

Searle (1985: 1) defines illocutionary act as the minimal units of human communication. It is performed via the communicative force of an utterance. An illocutionary act refers to the type of function the speaker intends to fulfill, or the type of action the speaker intends to accomplish in producing an utterance. It is an act which is accomplished in speaking. Illocutionary act can be identified in many forms. Several examples of the forms of illocutionary act are accusing, apologizing, blaming, congratulating, giving permission, joking, nagging, naming, promising, ordering, refusing, swearing, and thanking.

Searle (1985: 1) states that in general, an illocutionary act consists of an illocutionary force and a propositional content. For example, the two utterances “You will leave the room” and “Leave the room!” have the same propositional content,

which is that ‘you’ will leave the room. The first utterance has the illocutionary force of a prediction while the latter has the illocutionary force of an order.

The distinction between illocutionary force and propositional content is supported by the fact that their identity conditions are also different. The same propositional content can occur with different illocutionary forces and the same illocutionary force can occur with different propositional content. By recognizing and identifying the force of an utterance, the illocutionary act of the utterance can be delivered successfully. Hence, the role of illocutionary force in determining the types and functions of illocutionary act is vital.

b. Illocutionary Force

On many occasions, one single utterance can potentially have quite various intentions. In identifying the certain intention that a speaker tries to deliver using his or her utterance, the hearer needs to identify the illocutionary force of the utterance. When the hearer has recognized the illocutionary force of the utterance, the intention can be acknowledged successfully.

The study of illocutionary act is mainly focused on the illocutionary force of the utterances. Illocutionary force is the speaker’s involvement in what is uttered (Mey, 1993: 156). When a speaker performs an utterance in an appropriate context with certain intention, he or she also performs one or more illocutionary acts (Searle and Vanderveken, 1985: 1).

The illocutionary force of an utterance can be identified using seven Illocutionary Force Indicating Devices or IFID invented by Searle (1969) the mood of the verb,

punctuation, word-order, intonation contour, stress, and performative verbs. The example on how the IFID is realized in a conversation is presented below.

Him : Can I talk to Mary? Her : No, she’s not here.

Him : I’m asking you –can I talk to her? Her : And I’m telling you –she’s not here!

(Yule, 1996: 50)

In the conversation above, each speaker has performed illocutionary act of asking and telling by drawing the illocutionary forces of ‘ask’ and ‘tell’ in each of their utterances. Illocutionary force can be present in many forms, depending on the contexts in which the illocutionary act is performed.

c. The Types of Illocutionary Act

Searle (1975:11-17) classifies illocutionary act based on varied criteria as the following:

1) Declarative

According to Yule (1996: 53), declarative act is the type of speech act that change the world via the word. It affects immediate changes in some current state of affairs. The speaker has to have a special institutional role, in a specific context, in order to perform a declaration appropriately such as bidding in bridge, declaring war, excommunicating, firing from employment, and nominating a candidate. The examples of declarative act are presented below.

a) Priest : I now pronounce you husband and wife. b) Referee : You’re out!

(Yule, 1996: 53) The first example can constitute a declaration of marriage if the utterance is spoken by an appropriate authority, such as a Catholic priest. On the other hand, the same sentence, if it is spoken by an eight year old kid, cannot constitute a felicitous declarative act. The second example can also be regarded as a declaration if the utterance is spoken by a referee. It is spoken to declare that a player of the match is out of the game.

Searle and Vanderveken (1985: 205) indicate that declarative forces can be present in many forms such as declaring, approving, endorsing, excommunicating, naming, christening, resigning, firing, abbreviating, and blessing. The language features that indicate declarative acts are verbs such as declare, approve, endorse, excommunicate, name, christen, resign, fire, abbreviate, and bless.

2) Representative

Representative act represents some state of affairs. According to Yule (1996: 53), representative act is the type of speech act that states what the speaker believes to be the case or not. They express the speaker’s belief. Statement of fact, assertion, conclusions, and description are some examples of the speaker representing the world as he or she believes it. For examples:

a) The earth is flat.

b) It was a warm sunny day.

The examples above are the representations of the speaker’s beliefs to be the case in the world. The speaker in the first example expresses his or her belief by asserting that the earth is flat. On the other hand, the speaker in the second example expresses his or her belief that the day was a warm sunny day by uttering the assertive illocutionary act.

Assertive forces can be present in many forms, such as informing, stating, arguing, clarifying, convincing, agreeing, describing, protesting, reminding, and reporting. The language features that indicate representative acts are verbs such as assert, claim, argue, assure, predict, report, inform, admit, remind, testify, confess, conjecture, guess, state, hypothesize, swear, and insist.

3) Expressive

Yule (1996: 53) states that expressive act is a kind of speech act that states what the speaker feels. They express psychological states and can be statement of pleasure, pain, likes, dislikes, joy or sorrow. Expressive act refers to a speech act in which the speaker expresses his or her feeling and attitude about something. They can be caused by something the speaker does or the hearer does, but they are about the speaker’s experience. The examples of expressive act are shown below.

a) I’m really sorry! b) Congratulations!

(Yule, 1996: 53) Searle in Wardaugh (2006: 287) states that expressive act is used to express the sincerity conditions of the speech act. The utterance “I’m really sorry” and

“Congratulations” in the conversation above are the examples of expressive illocutionary act which have the illocutionary forces of apologizing to someone and congratulating someone.

Expressive forces can be present in many forms, such as thanking, apologizing, complimenting, congratulating, hoping, greeting, or joking. The language features that indicate expressive acts are verbs such as apologize, congratulate, thank, compliment, deplore, condole, and welcome.

4) Directive

Mey (1993: 164) asserts that directive act embodies an effort on the part of the speaker to ‘direct’ the hearer towards some goal (of the speaker, mostly). According to Yule (1996: 53), directive act is the type of speech act that the speakers use to get someone else to do something. They express the speaker’s desire or wish for the addressee to do something. Directive act contains what the speaker wants. By using directive act, the speaker attempts to adapt the world into the uttered words. The examples of directive illocutionary act are presented below.

a) Give me a cup of coffee. Make it black. b) Could you lend me a pen, please?

(Yule, 1996: 54) The examples above are the utterances which involve the performance of directive illocutionary acts. The first example is a directive illocutionary act in the form of ordering while the second example is a directive illocutionary act in the form

of requesting. The speakers of the utterances attempt to make the world fit the word via the hearers.

Directive forces can be present in many forms, such as requesting, suggesting, commanding, asking, begging, warning, or advising. The language features that indicate directive acts are verbs such as request, ask, order, command, solicit, incite, invite, beg, suggest, advise, recommend, supplicate, entreat, and pray.

5) Commissive

Commissive act refers to speech act that commits the speaker to do something in the future such as promising, offering, threatening, refusing, vowing, and volunteering. Yule (1996: 54) states that commissive act is the type of speech acts that the speakers use to commit themselves to some future action. They express the speaker’s intention and can be performed by the speaker alone or by the speaker as a member of a group. The examples of commissive illocutionary act are presented below.

a) I’m going to get it right next time. b) I’ll be back.

(Yule, 1996: 54) The content of commissive act has something to do with a future and possible action of the speaker. The modal ‘will’ or (to be) going to (in certain rules, contexts and situation) signifies a promise in which it is considered as commissive act. In the examples above, the speaker in the first example performs a commissive illocutionary act of predicting in which he or she predicts that he or she is going to get a thing right

next time. Meanwhile the speaker of the utterance in the second example performs a commissive illocutionary act in the form of promising that he or she will be back at certain time in the future.

Commissive forces can be performed in many forms, such as offering, promising, threatening, betting, denying, or refusing. The language features that indicate commissive acts are verbs such as commit, promise, threaten, accept, pledge, vow, consent, covenant, and guarantee.

d. The Functions of Illocutionary Act

Illocutionary act is central to linguistic communication. When saying something, the illocutionary act that a speaker produces actually has functions. According to Leech (1983: 104), there are certain functions of illocutionary act and he divides them into four social functions as listed below.

1) Competitive

This illocutionary goal competes with the social goal. This function is intended for showing politeness in the form of negative parameter. The point is to reduce the discord implicit in the competition between what the speaker wants to achieve and what is ‘good manner’. The examples of this goal are ordering, asking, demanding, and begging. Competitive goals are those which are essentially discourteous, such as getting someone to lend his or her money.

2) Convivial

This illocutionary goal coincides with the social goal. On the contrary with the previous category, the convivial type is intrinsically courteous. It means that

politeness here is in the positive form of seeking opportunity for comity. As an example, if someone has the opportunity to congratulate his or her friend on his birthday, he or she should do so. The examples of this goal are offering, inviting, greeting, thanking, and congratulating.

3) Collaborative

This illocutionary goal is indifferent with the social goal. In this illocutionary function, both politeness and impoliteness are relevant. This function commits the speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition. It can be found in most of written discourse. The examples of this goal are asserting, reporting, announcing, and instructing.

4) Conflictive

This illocutionary goal conflicts with the social goal. Similar to the collaborative function, politeness does not need to be questioned as the terms in this illocutionary function are used to cause offence or hurt the feeling of the hearer. The examples of conflictive function are threatening, accusing, cursing, and reprimanding.

5. Movie

a. The Definitions of Movie

A movie can be regarded as a representation of a real life. A movie or a film is defined as a series of moving pictures recorded with sounds that tells a story, shown on television or at the cinema/movie theater (Hornby, 2000: 496). A movie is created by photographing actual scenes with a motion picture camera, drawings or miniature models using traditional animation, or a combination of some or all of these

techniques and other visual effects. To analyze a movie, one has to understand its elements. Some elements of a movie are listed below.

1) Scene: A section of a movie or film usually made up of a number of shots, which is unified by time, setting, character, etc.

2) Plot: The unified structure of incidents in a movie or film. 3) Character: An imaginary person in a movie or film.

4) Point of view: The angle of vision from which a story is narrated.

b. The Back-up Plan

The Back-up Plan, previously known as Plan B, is a 2010 romantic comedy film

directed by Alan Poul, starring Jennifer Lopez and Alex O'Loughlin. It was released theatrically in the U.S. on April 23, 2010, and later in other regions.

Picture 1. The Back-up Plan Movie DVD Poster

The genre of this movie is the combination of romance and comedy that explores dating, love, marriage, and family life. After many years of dating, Zoe had decided

that waiting for the right man takes too long time. Determined to become a mother, she was inseminated to get a baby. She made an appointment and decided to go through the insemination alone. That same day, Zoe met Stan, a man who captivated her heart. Zoe never expected that she would meet a guy and fall in love with him.

Unfortunately, Zoe got pregnant when her relationship with Stan was doing well. She became complicated on how she should explain everything to Stan. Stan finally figured out that she was pregnant with twins. He assured Zoe that everything would be okay even though they were going to be parents for twins.

However, things did not go well as planned. Stan incidentally revealed to the public that the babies were not his and it made Zoe angry and left. As time went by, both Stan and Zoe realized that they could not live separately from each other. They finally reunited right at the time Zoe was in labor. Stan accompanied her during the birth delivery, promised to be on her side since then and become a good father for the babies.

The Back-up Plan movie tells about how a woman deals with donor insemination

to get a baby. In the movie, donor insemination is featured in the storyline as a way for a woman who does not want a marriage could still have a child. According to American Pregnancy Association (APA), donor insemination is legal in the United States. In December 2014, Fox News reported that the government of the United States brokered a deal to help a wife of a Cuban spy become pregnant through artificial insemination. This shows that this process is one of the ways for women who want to be mothers and were not able to have child could have hope.

In brief, The Back-up Plan movie portrays how couples in the United States

normally live and face their problems. Through this movie also, the phenomena of donor insemination is introduced as a problem solving for women who are unable to have child.

B. Previous Studies

Two studies related to this research are Commissive Illocution in Ernest Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises: A Pragmatic Analysis by Debora Pangaribuan and An Analysis of Illocutionary Act in Prince of Persia: The Sand of Time Movie by Nur

Azni Wardani.

Debora Pangaribuan’s research which is entitled Commissive Illocution in Ernest Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises: A Pragmatic Analysis analyzed commisive

illocutionary act employed by the characters in The Sun also Rises novel. Her

research applied descriptive qualitative method. The main objective of her study was to find commissive illocutionary act in the novel. The study revealed that there were four types of commissive act in the novel. They were promising, offering, threatening and betting. The most dominant type of commissive act used in the novel was promising.

Moreover, Nur Azni Wardani’s study which is entitled An Analysis of Illocutionary Act in Prince of Persia: The Sand of Time Movie analyzed illocutionary

act performed by Dastan who is the main character in the movie. Her research applied descriptive qualitative method. The objectives of her study were to identify contexts

underlying illocutionary act used in Dastan’s utterances and the implicature behind it. The study indicated that there were five illocutionary act occurred in Dastan’s utterances. They were representatives (reporting, stating, and concluding), directives (ordering, asking, requesting, and commanding), expressives (praising and apologizing), commisives (refusal and pledging), and declaratives (declaring).

This study is different from the two previous studies mentioned above. In the two studies, they only analyzed the types of illocutionary act. Meanwhile, this study focuses not only on the types of illocutionary act but also on the social function of the performance of illocutionary act. Furthermore, this study also deeply analyzes illocutionary act employed in the movie by investigating the illocutionary force of the two main characters’ utterances. With regard to the background of the study and the previous studies, the researcher is inspired and motivated to conduct a study of illocutionary act in a movie entitled The Back-up Plan.

C. Conceptual Framework

This study analyzes illocutionary act performed by the main characters in The Back-up Plan movie. This study employs descriptive qualitative research in which the

researcher concerns on the performance of illocutionary act by the main characters in

The Back-up Plan movie. Analyzing speech act, particularly illocutionary act, is a

matter of making assumption that is the interpretation of the utterances. In making interpretation of illocutionary act, the researcher should know the implied meanings of the utterances. Therefore, the researcher uses pragmatic point of view to interpret

the meanings of the utterances intended by the main characters in The Back-up Plan

movie.

Pragmatics as the study of language meaning is the appropriate approach to be used to analyze illocutionary act in The Back-up Plan movie, since the utterances

have other meanings that sometimes are different from what are literally spoken by the speakers.

Austin (1962) proposes that language has three main aspects: locutionary act, illocutionary act and perlocutionary act. Locutionary act is the basic act of utterance of producing a meaningful linguistic expression. Illocutionary act is performed via the communicative force of an utterance. Meanwhile, perlocutionary act is the effect on the hearer. Searle (1969:358) further develops the types of illocutionary act into five major categories. They are declarative, representative, directive, expressive and commisive.

Furthermore, Leech (1983: 104) divides the functions of illocutionary act into four categories. They are competitive, convivial, collaborative, and conflictive. This division of the functions of illocutionary act enables the researcher to seek out the goals of the illocutionary act by the main characters in movie and how their performances of illocutionary act are actually intended to the social goals.

Therefore, this study is expected to reveal the types and the functions of illocutionary act based on the theories proposed by Searle and Leech. In addition, this study is also expected to provide a useful source of learning material, especially concerning the use of illocutionary act in daily life.

Figure 1. Analytical Construct

29

Language Context

Speech Act Pragmatics

Expressive

Types (Searle, 1969)

Perlocutionary Act Locutionary Act Illocutionary Act

Conflictive apologizing Representative Commissive Directive Declarative

Functions (Leech, 1983)

Convivial Collaborative Competitive greeting thanking etc. endorsing approving declaring etc. etc. advising requesting questioning

etc. etc.

refusing offering promising reporting asserting informing

30 CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODS A. Research Type

This research was conducted by using qualitative approach. Qualitative method was used to describe the phenomenon in its context by interpreting the data. This method dealt with the possibilities to solve the problem by collecting, classifying, analyzing, and interpreting data.

According to Bogdan and Taylor (1975: 4), the examples of descriptive data are human being’s written or spoken words and their observable behaviors. The use of qualitative approach was aimed to describe the types and the functions of illocutionary act performed by the main characters in The Back-up Plan movie.

Vanderstoep and Johnson (2008: 167) state that qualitative research is more descriptive than predictive. Therefore, the qualitative method applied in this study aimed to present the research in the form of words description instead of numbers and statistics.

For this reason, this research aimed to describe the types and the functions of illocutionary act employed by the main characters in The Back-up Plan movie.

B. Form, Context and Source of Data

The data of this study were taken in the form of spoken but written utterances by the two main characters in the movie while the contexts were dialogues. The source of this study was a movie entitled The Back-up Plan. This movie was chosen as the

discuss how they overcome the problems in their relationship employ various types of illocutionary act. Furthermore, the conversations of the two main characters represent people’s daily conversation. Therefore, this movie was selected as the object of this research.

C. Research Instrument

The primary instrument of this research was the researcher herself since the study employed a descriptive qualitative research. Moleong (2001:121) states that in qualitative method, the researcher plays as the designer, the collector, the analyst, the interpreter, and the reporter of the data finding. The researcher designed the research including observation, analysis, and interpreting the data. Regarding the important role of the researcher, her knowledge and experience deeply influenced the accuracy of the data analysis. Furthermore, the secondary instrument of this research was the data sheet which was used to collect the data of illocutionary act from the sources. The table below illustrates the form of the data sheet which was used to collect the data.

Table 1: Data Sheet of Types and Functions of Illocutionary Act Employed by the Main Characters in Alan Poul’s The Back-up Plan Movie

Code Dialogue Context

D

a

tum

Types Functions

Illocutionary Force

De Re Di Ex Co CP CV CB CF

IA

/S

-1

/P

8/D

1 [INT. TAXI – _{MOMENTS LATER]}

(Zoe notices someone entering the cab from the other side.) ZOE: Uh… Excuse

P: Zoe and Stan

S: Inside a cab T: Zoe and Stan are arguing over a

1a

V V asserting

1b

V V questioning

me, this is my cab.(1a)

STAN: You own it? (1b)

ZOE: No, but I’m about to rent it. (1c)

taxi.

Note of abbreviations: IA : Illocutionary act S-1 : Scene 1

P8 : Page 8

D1 : Data number 1 P : Participant S : Setting T : Topic 1a : Datum 1a 1b : Datum 1b 1c : Datum 1c

De : Declarative Re : Representative Di : Directive Ex : Expressive Co : Commissive CP : Competitive CV : Convivial CB : Collaborative CF : Conflictive

In addition, to make the data easier to be found in the data source, the researcher also used data codes. The figure of the data codes is presented below.

Figure 2: The data codes Code (IA/S-20/P8/D-1a/Re/CB) IA : Illocutionary act

S-1 : Scene 1 D-1a : Datum 1a P8 : Page 8

Re : Representative CB : Collaborative

D. Techniques of Data Collection

The data of this research were collected using a note-taking technique from the utterances of the two main characters in The Back-up Plan movie. According to

Sudaryanto (1993: 133-135), this is a technique for providing data through reading carefully and note taking.

The researcher took some steps during the data collection: watching the movie, finding its transcript, making the data sheet, and categorizing the raw data into the sheet. The first step was watching The Back-up Plan movie to understand its plot and

story. After the researcher understood the content of the movie, it was then re-watched to find the utterances containing illocutionary act performed by the two main characters. After that, the researcher searched for the script of the movie from the internet and checked the accuracy of the script with the dialogues in the movie. The script was accessed from the internet (http://www.imsdb.com/scripts/Back-up-Plan,-The.html). Next, the researcher took notes of the main characters’ utterances which were in accordance with the objectives of the study. Categorizing the raw data into the data sheet was the final step of the data collecting techniques.

E. Techniques of Data Analysis

Bogdan and Biklen (1982: 145) state that qualitative data analysis deals with working with data, organizing it, breaking it into manageable units, synthesizing it, searching for patterns, discovering what is important and what is to be learned, and deciding what the researcher will explain.

The researcher applied referential methods in which the data were analyzed based on the explored theory. The process of the data analysis was started by reducing the raw data by sorting out the irrelevant data. Next, the researcher classified the data into the data sheet based on the classification of the two objectives of the study. After that, the data were analyzed according to the applied theories. To gain trustworthiness, the data were then triangulated by three students of English Language and Literature study program. The final step of data analyzing process was drawing the conclusion based on the result of the research in order to answer the formulation of the problem.

F. Trustworthiness of the Data

This research conducted trustworthiness to establish the reliability, truthfulness of the data, credibility, and the consistency of the data. According to Vanderstoep and Johnston (2009: 179), the reliability of data can be gained by conducting triangulation. If the research is reliable, it can be said as a valuable research.

Furthermore, the credibility of the data was achieved by performing the data in deep and detail observation so that the data could be said credible. In applying this credibility, the data were reread carefully and comprehensively in accordance with the researcher’s questions until she got the correct analysis.

The validity of the data was provided by crosschecking different data sources. Therefore, in this research, the data validity of the research was done by repeating observation of the data, comparing the obtained data with the other references and doing the data triangulation with friends. For triangulation, the researcher asked three

students of English Language and Literature study program to triangulate the data. They were Nabella Primadianti, Efa Nuryani, and Wahyu Kurniasari. The transferability and confirmability of the data were achieved by involving various theories in order to provide the detailed description and interpretation of the findings.

36 CHAPTER IV

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

In this chapter, the results of the research are explained in detail. This chapter consists of two sub-chapters: sub-chapter A and sub-chapter B. The first chapter presents the findings of the research. Meanwhile, the discussion of the findings is presented in sub-chapter B.

A. Research Findings

Based on the data analysis, the study reveals 277 data of illocutionary act performed by the main characters in The Back-up Plan movie. The following sections

illustrate the research findings.

1. The Types of Illocutionary Act Performed by the Main Characters in Alan Poul’s The Back-up Plan Movie

In terms of the types, illocutionary act can be divided into five types. They are declarative, representative, directive, expressive, and commissive. The findings of the types of illocutionary act employed by the main characters in The Back-up Plan

Table 2: The Types of Illocutionary Act Performed by the Main Characters in Alan Poul’s The Back-up Plan Movie

No Types of Illocutionary Act Occurrences

1 Representative 158

2 Directive 84

3 Expressive 23

4 Commissive 12

5 Declarative 0

Total 277

Table 2 shows that four types of illocutionary act are performed by the main characters in The Back-up Plan movie. They are representative act, directive act,

expressive act, and commissive act. The most often occurring type is representative with 158 occurrences. In the second rank is directive act with 84 occurrences. Expressive act is in the third rank with 23 occurrences. Meanwhile, the least occurring type is commissive act with only 12 occurrences. Based on the findings, declarative act is not performed by the main characters in the movie.

The two main characters in the movie are described as a new couple who are in the steps of knowing each other better. This situation makes them employ representative act more often than the other types. By employing representative act, their beliefs, ideas, and messages are conveyed to each other. On the other hand,

declarative act is not found performed by the main characters in the movie since it needs particular authority and circumstance. As the two main characters are common people with no certain authority, they do not perform any declaration in their utterances.

Furthermore, the findings of illocutionary forces found in the movie are presented in Table 3.

Table 3: Illocutionary Forces Performed by the Main Characters in Alan Poul’s The Back-up Plan Movie

No Types of Illocutionary Act Illocutionary Force Occurrences

1 Representative a. Informing 79

b. Asserting 61

c. Explaining 4

d. Arguing 1

e. Predicting 1

f. Guessing 3

g. Reminding 4

h. Reporting 1

i. Agreeing 1

j. Stating opinion 3

2 Directive a. Questioning 72

b. Requesting 3

c. Commanding 4

d. Advising 3

e. Wishing 2

3 Expressive a. Thanking 1

b. Greeting 2

c. Apologizing 5

d. Complimenting 2

e. Stating love 4

f. Stating surprise 5

h. Stating annoyance 1

4 Commissive a. Promising 9

b. Offering 2

c. Guaranteeing 1

5 Declarative

Total 277

Based on Table 3, representative illocutionary act has the most various kinds of force found in the movie followed by expressive illocutionary act. Meanwhile, directive act has 5 kinds of illocutionary force and commissive act has only 3 kinds of illocutionary force. Declarative force is not found performed by the main characters in the movie.

2. The Functions of Illocutionary Act Performed by the Main Characters in Alan Poul’s The Back-up Plan Movie

Each illocutionary act found The Back-up Plan movie is performed with

functions. According to Leech’s theory, there are four kinds of social functions of illocutionary act: competitive, convivial, collaborative, and conflictive. The findings of the functions of illocutionary act by the main characters in The Back-up Plan

movie are provided in the Table 4.

Table 4: The Functions of Illocutionary Act Performed by the Main Characters in Alan Poul’s The Back-up Plan Movie

No Functions of Illocutionary Act Occurrences

2 Competitive 84

3 Convivial 35

4 Conflictive 0

Total 277

Based on Table 4, three social functions of illocutionary act are employed by the main characters in the movie. They are competitive, collaborative, and convivial. The dominant function of illocutionary act found in the movie is collaborative with 158 occurrences, followed by competitive with 84 occurrences. The function with the smallest occurrences is convivial with only 35 occurrences. Conflictive function is not performed by the main characters in the movie.

Since collaborative function is intended to ignore social goal, it is dominantly performed by the main characters. They choose to perform illocutionary act with collaborative function to tell the truth of their feelings to each other. However, conflictive function is not found performed by the main characters since it is intended to offend or hurt the feeling of the hearer. The main characters are a couple who are in love and they want to give good impression to each other. Therefore, they do not employ conflictive function in their utterance as it can create conflict in their relationship.

B. Discussion

This section presents the discussion of the study based on the research findings in the previous section and the formulation of the problem stated in Chapter I. This

section identifies the types and the functions of illocutionary act employed by the main characters in The Back-up Plan movie.

1. The Types of Illocutionary Act Performed by the Main Characters in Alan Poul’s The Back-up Plan Movie

This part contains the explanations of the data findings in reference to data analysis. There are four types of illocutionary act found in the research. Each of them contains several particular forces. All are discussed as follows.

a. Declarative

Declarative act is not found in this research. This type of illocutionary act requires certain institutional role in a specific context. Furthermore, declarative act has specific uses in very specific place and events (settings), e.g. a judge in a court when sentencing a defendant, a priest when declaring a couple as husband and wife, and a director of a company when firing his employer. Moreover, declarative acts use specific illocutionary force indicative device, e.g. ‘I declare that…’, ‘I pronounce that…’

In the movie, the two characters are depicted as commoners with no certain authority or institutional role. Zoe is a woman who works at a pet shop while Stan is a man who makes cheese. In such setting, this type of illocutionary act is rarely found. Therefore, there is no any declarative act found performed by the main characters in this movie.

b. Representative

Representative act is the type of speech act that state what the speaker believes to be the case or not. They express the speaker’s belief. Based on the analysis, there are 158 occurrences of representative act found in the movie.

The forces of representative illocutionary act found in the findings are informing, asserting, explaining, arguing, predicting, guessing, reminding, reporting, agreeing, and stating an opinion. Each force of representative act is presented below.

1) Informing

Informing is an act to tell someone about a particular fact or more. It can be in the form of spoken or written information. The first evidence of informing acts performed by the main character in the movie can be seen in the conversation below.

The above dialogue occurred when Stan was following Zoe walking out from the subway station. Stan asked Zoe the reason of her good mood even though previously they had an argument. Zoe answered Stan’s question by informing him that there were good things happening to her. With regard to this context, since Zoe’s utterance is a statement which contains explanatory information about the reason of her good

(4: 01)

Stan : So, why are you in such a good mood anyway?

Zoe : Not that it’s any of your business, but… good things are happening to me.

Stan : That’s nice. I hope it continues. P: Zoe and Stan

S: Inside the subway station, day

mood, it is then categorized as informing. The next conversation written below also shows another informing performed by the main character.

The above conversation took place when Zoe and Stan were sharing each other’s information. Stan began by telling Zoe that his family produced cheese. Zoe then asked him for further information about the cheese. As presented in the bold expression, Stan answered Zoe’s by informing her that his family had a goat farm. In relation to this context, Stan’s utterance is categorized as informing since it is a statement which contains information about his family. Another example of informing is provided as follows.

The above dialogue happened when Zoe and Stan were having dinner at Gray Papaya. They were on the step of knowing each other better. Stan asked Zoe about

(4: 02)

Stan : Can I just give you my card? Here, take my card. I’m not a freak, really. I sell cheese.

Zoe : Cheese?

Stan : Yeah, my family has a goat farm. We make cheese. You like cheese?

P: Zoe and Stan

S: At Hudson Pet, night

(IA/S-5/P14/D-14a/Re/CB)

(4: 03)

Stan : How about your family?

Zoe : It’s just my grandmother. She lives in a retirement community in Queens. My parents died when I was young.

Stan : I’m so sorry. P: Zoe and Stan

S: At Gray Papaya Hot Dog, night

her family and she answered his question by informing him that she only lived with her grandmother who was at a retirement community. In reference to this context, Zoe’s utterance is classified as informing since it is a statement which contains explanatory information about Zoe’s family.

2) Asserting

Asserting is an act to express something in spoken or written words carefully, completely, and clearly. It is used to arrange, fix, or announce something in advance. People express something in words to state what they think about by stating. Datum presented below is the example of asserting performed by the main character.

The above dialogue happened in a scene where Zoe and Stan first met each other. Both of them were trying to rent the same cab. When Zoe found out that there was another person entering the cab, she immediately asserted to Stan that the taxi belonged to her. In relation to this context, Zoe’s utterance is categorized as asserting since it is a statement which contains her own belief that the taxi is hers. Another asserting is presented as follows.

(4: 04)

(Zoe notices someone entering the cab from the other side)

Zoe : Uh… Excuse me, this is my cab. Stan : You own it?

Zoe : No, but I’m about to rent it. P: Zoe and Stan

S: Inside a taxi, day

The above conversation occurred in the same setting and situation with the previous dialogue. Zoe and Stan were arguing over a cab. Stan told Zoe that she could not take another person’s cab. Zoe then responded it by saying that she did not see him beforehand. Thus, she did not know that there was another person trying to get in the same cab. Stan then asserted to Zoe that Zoe saw him. In reference to this context, since Stan’s utterance is a statement which includes his own belief, it is classified as asserting. Another example of asserting is provided below.

The above dialogue occurred when Zoe visited Stan’s cheese stand. Zoe asked Stan what he sold and he answered cheese. Zoe responded his information by asserting to him that she knew it was cheese. In relation to the context, Zoe’s

(4: 05)

Stan : If you see someone about to get in a cab, you can’t just run in from the other side and say it’s yours.

Zoe : I didn’t see you. Stan : I saw you see me. P: Zoe and Stan

S: Inside a taxi, day

(IA/S-1/P8/D-3c/Re/CB)

(4: 06)

Zoe : What is it? Stan : It’s cheese. Zoe : I can see that. P: Zoe and Stan

S: At Stan’s cheese cave, night

utterance is a statement which contains her assertion that she knows that it is cheese. Therefore, it is categorized as asserting. By the utterance, Zoe actually wants Stan to give further explanation about the kind of the cheese he sells at his stand.

3) Explaining

Explaining is an act to tell someone about something which is clear and easy to understand. Datum presented below is the example of explaining performed by the main character.

The above dialogue happened when Zoe visited Stan’s cheese stand at The Farmer Market. Stan explained to Zoe the details of the cheese that he sold. In regard with the context, since Stan’s utterances are statements which contain explanation of a particular thing, they are categorized as explaining. Another example of explaining is written below.

(4: 07)

(Stan walks Zoe through his cheese stand)

Stan : This is our basic chevre, probably our best seller. The cheese that started it all, as they say. Then over here we have our surface-rippened cheeses. These are the aged/raw milk cheeses. This is really boring, huh?

Zoe : No, not at all. P: Zoe and Stan

S: At The Little Goat Cheese stand, day

The above dialogue happened when Zoe visited Stan’s cheese stand. Stan was worried that his explanation about cheese was boring for Zoe. As shown in the bold expression, Zoe responded Stan’s utterance by asserting to him that his explanation was interesting. Stan then continued to explain the details about the process of making the cheese. In relation to this context, since Stan’s utterances are statements which contain the detailed explanation about a particular thing, they are categorized as explaining. Another example of explaining can be seen in the dialogue below.

The above dialogue happened at Stan’s goat farm. Stan and Zoe were walking around the farm and ahead of them was Nuts, Zoe’s dog. Stan expressed his

(4: 08)

Stan : It’s like you’re in a foreign country and the only thing to watch on tv is a documentary on cheese. You don’t want to watch it, but somehow you can’t stop.

Zoe : I think it’s interesting. Really.

Stan : All right. You asked for it. The aged raw/milk cheese are made from raw milk and then aged for four to six months. Sometimes more. Sometimes less. Usually more. Depends on the cheese.

P: Zoe and Stan

S: At The Little Goat Cheese stand, day

(IA/S-7/P21/D-17d/Re/CB)

(4: 09)

Stan : I can’t believe that Nuts has an off-road wheelchair.

Zoe : He’s got one for snow, too, with little skis on the bottom.

(Stan smiles and shakes his head)

P: Zoe and Stan

S: At Stan’s little goat farm, night

amazement at the fact that Nuts had an off-road wheelchair. Zoe then responded it by explaining that he also got one wheelchair for snow season. In reference to this context, since Zoe’s utterances are statements which contain the explanation of Nuts’ wheelchair, they are categorized as explaining.

4) Arguing

Arguing is a kind of representative act which expresses an opposite opinion. Arguing is also used to give reasons for or against something especially with the aim of persuading somebody to share one’s own opinion. The only finding of arguing act performed by the main character in the movie is presented below.

The above dialogue happened when Zoe and Stan were incidentally going to rent the same cab. Zoe stated that the cab belonged to her, and it made Stan question her whether she owned it or not. Zoe answered it by saying that she was about to rent it. Stan then responded her utterance by arguing that it was more like stealing the cab instead of renting it. With regard to this context, since Stan’s response is a statement which contains his argumentation about a particular thing, it is then categorized as arguing.

(4: 10)

Zoe : Excuse me, this is my cab. Stan : You own it?

Zoe : No, but I’m about to rent it.

Stan : Actually, if we’re being technical, you kind of stole it. Zoe : I don’t think so.

P: Zoe and Stan S: Inside a taxi, day

5) Predicting

Predicting is used to say what the speaker believes about something that will happen. The only finding of predicting is presented as follows.

The above dialogue took place when Stan and Zoe were on their way to have a dinner. Stan informed Zoe the details about the restaurant where they would have their dinner. He then predicted that since some guys from the band would also be present at the restaurant, they might get a little music there. Predicting expresses someone’s belief towards what will happen in the future. In reference to this context, since Stan’s utterance is a statement which consists of his prediction about what will happen later at the restaurant, it is identified as predicting.

6) Guessing

Guessing gives an answer to a particular question when the speaker does not have any fact. The speaker is also uncertain whether he or she is correct or not. The example of guessing performed by the main character is provided as follows.

(4: 11)

Stan : Are you feeling okay?

(Zoe nods, her face looks pale)

Stan : Good, because this should really be a culinary adventure. This is an underground restaurant that moves from apartment to apartment, depending on the chef. And some of the guys from the band will be there. So, we might get a little jam going. Sounds fun, right?

P: Zoe and Stan S: Inside a taxi, night

The above dialogue took place when Stan and Zoe were having a conversation at Stan’s goat farm. Stan asserted his opinion about how perfect Zoe was and he could not believe that there was no one who snatched her up at that time. Zoe responded Stan’s utterance by guessing that it was probably because she drove them all away. With regard to this context, since Zoe’s utterance is a statement which contains a guess, it is then identified as guessing. Another example can be seen as follows.

The above dialogue occurred after Zoe told Stan the news regarding her pregnancy. Zoe apologized to Stan for making him shocked. She then explained the reason why she decided to do the insemination. In regard with this context, Zoe’s

(4: 12)

Stan : You’re very unique.

Zoe : Well, you’re a dime dozen. I can’t tell you how many banjo playing, cheese makers I’ve been with.

Stan : I keep watching for the other shoe to drop. Like, how can you be so perfect? Why are you even still single? I can’t believe no one’s snatched you up by now.

Zoe : I drive them all away, I guess. P: Zoe and Stan

S: At Stan’s little goat farm, night

(IA/S-16/P50/D-32e/Re/CB)

(4: 13)

(Zoe sits in the passenger seat with the key in the ignition. Stan leans against the car. They are both quiet.)

Zoe : I don’t know what to say. I guess I’d have given up on meeting someone like you, and I did what I thought was best.

(Stan says nothing, he runs his foot back and forth in the gravel)

P: Zoe and Stan

S: Inside a car, in front of Stan’s farm, day

utterance is identified as guessing since it uses performative verb ‘I guess’. Another guessing can also be seen in the following conversation.

The above dialogue happened when Stan and Zoe were witnessing Lori’s birth delivery. Zoe asked about the thing that floated on the surface of the inflatable pool. Stan then answered her question by guessing that it was probably the placenta of the baby. With regard to the context, since Stan’s utterance is a statement which contains his guess of a particular thing, it is identified as guessing.

7) Reminding

Reminding is an act to make someone think of something that they have forgotten or might have forgotten. Datum presented below is the example of reminding employed by the main characters in the movie.

(4: 14)

Stan : Are you okay?

Zoe : I don’t know. Why am I wet?

(Zoe is lying in the inflatable pool. Her eyes go from side to side. The horror of the situation becoming clear. A spongy, purple thing floats by.)

Zoe : What is that?

Stan : I think it’s the placenta. P: Zoe and Stan

S: Inside a car, in front of Stan’s farm, day

The above dialogue happened after Zoe told Stan that she was pregnant. Since Stan was shocked, Zoe then apologized to him and said that life was not perfect as what he expected. She reminded Stan that they were in real life. In regard with this context, since Zoe’s utterance is a statement which consists of a reminder of a particular thing, it is identified as reminding. Another example of reminding is presented below.

The above dialogue occurred when Zoe and Stan were going to Lori’s apartment. Zoe planned to witness the birth delivery alone. Stan then reminded her that it was

(4: 15)

Stan : Well, what am I supposed to do now? This isn’t how it was supposed to be. This isn’t what---

Zoe : I’m sorry. I’m sorry, okay. Life isn’t perfect. It’s not all neat and tidy like your perfect family and your perfect farm and your bluegrass band. It’s messy. It’s fucked up. This is real life, okay? I’m sorry to break it to you.

Stan : What’s sorry going to do? P: Zoe and Stan

S: Inside Stan’s bathroom, night

(IA/S-20/P57/50f/Re/CB)

(4: 16)

Stan : I’m confused. Why did you say you would come witness this birth in the first place?

Zoe : I don’t know. Seems like a good idea at the time. I was trying to get back in their good graces. Go home. I’ll meet you there. I don’t want them to see you anyway.

Stan : It’s four in the morning. I’m not letting you walk home alone. P: Zoe and Stan

S: At Lori’s apartment building lobby, night

four in the morning and he did not want Zoe to go home alone. In reference to this context, since Stan’s utterance is a statement which consists of a reminder of a particular time, it is then identified as reminding. Conversation written below is also another example of reminding.

The above dialogue took place in front of Zoe’s home. Stan followed Zoe from the market to her home. Zoe asked him why he followed her. Stan answered her question by reminding her that the day was Thursday and they had an appointment with a doctor that day. With regard to this context, since Stan’s utterances are statements which contain a reminder about a particular thing, it is identified as reminding.

8) Reporting

Reporting is an act to give a spoken or written account of something heard, seen, done, studied, etc. The only finding of reporting is presented below.

(4: 17)

Zoe : What?

Stan : It’s Thursday. We have a doctor’s appointment. Zoe : There is no ‘we’, Stan.

P: Zoe and Stan

S: In front of Zoe’s house, day

The above dialogue took place at Zoe’s bedroom when she and Stan were reading a book titled What to Expect when You’re Expecting. After reading a certain

page, Zoe reported to Stan that many women in the second trimester experienced an increased sexual appetite. With regard to this context, Zoe’s utterance is identified as reporting since it is a statement which contains a report of a particular thing that she has read in the book.

9) Agreeing

Agreeing is an act to say ‘yes’ which means that someone is willing to do something or for something to happen. The only finding of agreeing is presented as follows.

(4: 18)

Zoe : Have you gotten to page 79 yet?

Stan : No. I stopped reading when you ripped out one of my pages and used it as a napkin.

Zoe : Says here many women in the second trimester experience an increased sexual appetite.

P: Zoe and Stan

S: In front of Zoe’s house, day

(IA/S-26/P74/D-58c/Re/CB)

(4: 19)

Zoe : I don’t know. Seemed like a good idea at the time. I was trying to get back in their good graces. Go home. I’ll meet you there. I don’t want them to see you anyway.

Stan : It’s four in the morning. I’m not letting you walk alone.

Zoe : Fine. I’ll just pop in, show my face and leave. Ten minutes, tops. P: Zoe and Stan

S: At Lori’s apartment building, night

117

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seen that. (66b) STAN: No. (66c)

ZOE: I did mention that I barely know those people, right? (66d)

STAN: Like forty times. (66e)

ZOE: I feel the need to say it again. (66f) (They turn into the Farmer’s Market)

witnessing Lori’s

baby birth. 66c V V asserting

66d V V questioning

66e V V informing

66f V V asserting

IA /S -33 /P 94/ D -67

[EXT. FARMER’S MARKET – MOMENTS LATER]

(The fruits and vegetables and flowers become a blur as Zoe runs out of the Farmer’s Market. Stan chases after her.)

ZOE: You know, all this time you’re trying to figure out who the real me is, (67a) but who the fuck are you? (67b)

STAN: Zoe.

(She runs to a nearby cab and slams the door.)

P: Zoe and Stan S: At the Farmer’s Market

T: Zoe is angry at Stan’s explanation to Olivia that the babies are not his.

67a V V asserting

67b V V questioning

IA /S -34 /P 97/ D -68

[EXT. ZOE’S BROWNSTORNE – DAY] (Zoe walks down the steps. Stan is waiting for her on the sidewalk. His hands in his pocket.) ZOE: What? (68a)

STAN: It’s Thursday. We have a doctor’s appointment. (68b)

ZOE: There is no “we”, Stan.(68c)

STAN: Come on, I didn’t mean to say it, and that’s not how I feel. (68d)

(Zoe shakes her head.)

P: Zoe and Stan S: At Zoe’s brownstore T: Zoe is angry at Stan and he is trying to convince her that he is sorry about his statement.

68a V V questioning

68b V V reminding

68c V V asserting

118

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IA /S -35 /P 110/ D -69

[EXT. FARMER’S MARKET – LATER] (Zoe runs through the market looking for Stan. She keeps running towards him. He now runs towards her. They finally meet. Zoe is out of breath and can barely talk.)

STAN: Why are you in hospital gown? (69a) ZOE: I’m in labor. (69b)

P: Zoe and Stan S: At the Farmer’s Market

T: Zoe is running towards Stan wearing a gown, she is in labor.

69a V V questioning

69b V V informing

IA /S -35 /P 110/ D -70

[EXT. FARMER’S MARKET – LATER] (They finally meet. Zoe is out of breath and can barely talk.)

ZOE: It’s you. (70a) STAN: What? (70b)

ZOE: Nana’s my birthing partner, but she passed out and needed stitches, and Bobby asked me who I most wanted. With me, and…it’s you. (70c) It’s only you. (70d) I don’t want to be alone anymore. (70e) I love you. You don’t know how much I love you. (70f) (Stan doesn’t know what to say. He’s literally speechless.)

P: Zoe and Stan S: At the Farmer’s Market

T: Zoe confesses her love to Stan and asks her to be her birthing partner as she is soon to give birth.

70a V V informing

70b V V questioning

70c V V informing

70d V V asserting

70e V V asserting

70f V V stating love

IA /S -36 /P 112/ D -71

[INT. GRAY’S PAPAYA HOT DOGS – DAY] (They are now at the counter with hot dogs in front of them.)

ZOE: Who know you were such a romantic. (71a)

STAN: Well, it’s the anniversary of our first date. (71b) Where else would I take you? (71c) (then) Cheers.

(They clink dogs and each take bite.)

P: Zoe and Stan S: At Gray’s Papaya Hot Dogs

T: Zoe and Stan are having a romantic date to celebrate their first anniversary.

71a V V asserting

71b V V reminding

119

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IA

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-37

/P

114/

D

-72

[INT. GRAY’S PAPAYA HOT DOGS – LATER]

(Zoe and Stan, still wearing the Baby Bjorns, stand face to face in front of the guests and the priest.)

STAN: I promise to love you even though you still eat chicken McNuggets in bed. I promise to name cheeses after all of our children no matter how embarrassed they are by it. I promise to always check out your ass when you walk away, and I promise to love you more tomorrow than I do today, which doesn’t even seem impossible.

(And we watch Zoe’s face as she realizes that there are some things that really will last forever.)

P: Zoe and Stan S: At Gray’s Papaya Hot Dogs

T: Stan is proposing to Zoe to be his wife.