14 tongue and the target language of the learners. In phase two, the researcher is
required to differentiate between errors and mistakes. Then, in phase three, Corder 1971a as cited by Ellis 1994 suggested that the researcher also has to concern
whether the errors are overt clear deviation form or covert superficially well- formed but
not reflecting the learners‟ intention. In phase four, the researcher also has to decide to investigate deviations in correctness or also deviations in
appropriateness. Those phases are the steps in identification of errors.
c. Description of errors
Ellis 1994: 54 stated that “the description of learner errors involves a
compari son of the learner‟s idiosyncratic utterances with a reconstruction of those
utterance s in the target language”. Dulay, Burt, and Krashen 1982 as cited by
Ellis 1994 argue the need for descriptive taxonomies that focus only on observable, surface features of errors, as a basis for subsequent explanation. In
description of errors, the researcher needs to use error taxonomy to describe the learners‟ errors in detail.
One of error taxonomies is linguistic category taxonomy by Politzer and Ramirez 1973. Politzer and Ramirez 1973 as cited by Ellis 1994 set their
taxonomy with more general categories: morphology, syntax and vocabulary. This taxonomy allows for both a detailed description of specific errors and also for a
quantification of a corpus of errors. In description of errors, the researcher also needs to quantify the errors that occurred. Schachter and Celce-Murcia 1977 as
cited by Ellis 1994: 57 point out “to say anything worthwhile about error
15 frequency we need to know the number of times it would be possible for learners
to have committed different errors ”.
d. Explanation of Errors
Ellis 1994 stated that explanation of errors is concerned with establishing the sources of the error. In explanation of errors, the researcher is required to seek
out the sources of students‟ errors based on the collected errors. Taylor 1986 as cited by Ellis 1994 discovers three sources of errors. They are psycholinguistic,
sociolinguistic, epistemic and discourse. Psycholinguistic sources deal with the nature of the L2 knowledge system and the learners‟ difficulties in using the L2
knowledge system. Sociolinguistic sources deal with learners‟ ability in adjusting
their language in accordance with the social context. Epistemic sources deal with learners‟ of world knowledge. Discourse sources deal with problems in
organization of information into a coherent „text‟. Richards 1971b as cited by Ellis 1994 also provides the sources of errors.
The first one is interference errors. Interference errors occur as a result of the use of elements from one language while speaking another. The second is intralingual
errors. Intralingual errors reflect the general characteristics of rule learning such as faulty generalization, incomplete application of rules and failure to learn
conditions under which rules apply. The third is developmental errors. Developmental errors occur when the learner attempts to build up hypotheses
about the target language on the basis of limited experience. Those sources of errors are for the consideration
in explaining the students‟ errors.
16
e. Evaluating Errors
