Jerome Bruner in Taylor 2004 also had an influence in the educational
thinking in the late 1950’s and early 1960’s. He is associated with the term ‘discovery learning’. He states that there
are three components in learning, they are: 1 acquisition of new information; 2 transformation of information; and 3 evaluation.
Cognitivism is suited to asking of scenarios. The participants are asked a set of questions following a scenario. The roles of the
questioner to guide the participants to the next questions and facilitate them to learn and reflect are very important. New
information is acquired, transformed, and evaluated by the participants through the scenarios.
4. Communicative Language Teaching
a. Definition of Communicative Language Teaching
Brown 2007: 45 states that communicative language teaching CLT is an accepted model with many interpretations and
manifestations. It carries out the issues of “authenticity, acceptability, and adaptability”. In addition, Nunan 2004: 182 states that
communicative language teaching is a system for the expression of meaning primary purpose-interaction communication that carries out
meaningful tasks and uses meaningful language to the learner to promote learning. Moreover, Richards 2006: 2 also states that
communicative language teaching is a set of principles about the goals of language teaching, how students learn a language, the kind of
classroom activities which best facilitate learning, and the roles of teachers and students in the classroom. Larsen-Freeman 2000: 121
also adds that communicative language teaching aims to apply the theoretical perspective of the Communicative Approach by making
communicative competence the objective of language teaching and by accepting the interdependence of language and communication.
b. Characteristics of CLT Approach
Brown 2007: 46-47 proposes 7 interconnected characteristics of communicative language teaching, they are:
1 Overall goals
The goal of CLT is to communicate. It suggets a focus on all of the components grammatical, discourse, functional, sociolinguistic,
and strategic of communicative components. Goals must connect the organizational aspects of language with the pragmatic aspects.
2 Relationship of form and function
Form and function are designed to engage students in the pragmatic, authentic, functional use of language for important
purposes. 3
Fluency and accuracy Fluency may have more importance than accuracy to keep students
engaged in language use. And they must be appropriate which mean students talk to whom about what, when, and where. Teacher
should offers appropriate corrective feedback on students’ errors.
4 Focus on real-world contexts
Students in a communicative class have to use the language productively and receptively in unrehearsed contexts outside the
classroom. Therefore, classroom tasks must equip students wuth skills to communicate in those contexts.
5 Autonomy and strategic involvement
Students have opportunities to focus on their own learning process through developing their awareness of their learning style
strenghth, weaknesses, and preferences and the development of of appropriate strategies for production and comprehension.
6 Teacher roles
Teacher role is as a facilitator and guide who values the students’
linguistic development. 7
Student roles Students should be active participants in CLT class.
c. The Techniques and the Materials of CLT
