variety of pronunciations, not always easily separated into their constituent parts” Björverud 1998:145. The meanings of the four final particles include
• weak affirmation or slight contrast either with another proposition in the same sentence or with an expected ideaattitude,
• attitude of doubt about the proposition ‘maybe’, • attitude of doubt about the content of the sentence speaker’s mind not made up, and
• attitude of anger or displeasure two forms, with the longer one being more emphatic.
9.7.6 Nuosu clause-final and sentence-final particles
9.7.6.1 Clause-final particles
Clause-final particles in Nuosu include the substantivizing or nominalizing particles
2
su and
2
du Fu 1997:123 discussed earlier in
section 2.1.4 , “Types of nouns, compounding, and derivation.” They are
used to create noun clauses in both subject and object positions Fu 1997:174. Note: ‘?’=not glossed 237
2
ts’ ɔ
2
ts’ ɿ
2
ma
1
mo
2
du
2
a
2
ɲio person this
CLF
see
NOM
much ‘What this man has seen is a lot.’ Fu 1997:123
238
2
ŋa
2
ts’ ɿ
3
he
2
su
3
he
3
a
3
v̩ I
he speak
NOM
speak? not like ‘I don’t like what he said.’ Fu 1997:175
9.7.6.2 Sentence-final particles
The subject particle can also be used to create a sentential subject Fu 1997:170: 239
2
ts’ ɔ
1
ts ɿ
2
n ɯ
3
a
3
mbo person
scold
SUBJ
not good ‘To scold other other people is not good.’ Fu 1997:170.
Illocutionary particles follow main verbs and may be the final element of a sentence. Although there are three moods assertive, imperative, and interrogative, no particle is required for assertive or
imperative. Most often, however, the verb particle that marks the end of temporal clauses is inserted before the verb to mark it as imperative Fu 1997:185. In addition, the exhortatives ‘let’
1
ha or ‘wish’
1
tç‘ie, however, may be used as imperative markers for special or prolonged effort Fu 1997:124. The subject of imperatives may be expressed, and where it’s not, second person is implied Fu 1997:124.
Exhortatives may be directed at third person participants. 240
2
ko
3
he Imperative particle speak
‘Speak’ Fu 1997:185 241
2
n ɯ
3
ŋo
1
ha you think exhortative
‘Think it over’ Fu 1997:124
242
3
lo
3
ho
1
la
2
ha
2
m̩
1
ha Lo-ho La-ha do exhortative
‘Let Loho Laha do it’ Interrogative particles are the final element in question sentences. They signal Fu 1997:183–184:
• rhetorical yesno questions, and • anticipated answers for yesno questions.
No particle is used specifically for wh-questions, even though wh-words are also used to form free relatives and indefinites Fu 1997:103–107.
243
2
n ɯ
3
a
2
bo
2
s ɿ
3
da? you
not go
yet or
‘You haven’t gone yet, have you?’ 244
2
ts’ ɿ
1
mi
1
pa? he
hungry
Q
following “He hasn’t eaten.” ‘He is hungry, isn’t he?’ Fu 1997:184
10 Unrestricted particles
Unrestricted particles are defined as those that may follow a noun, a verb, another particle, or certain adverbials Matisoff 1973:46, 168–169. Unrestricted particles are introduced in section
2.4.2 , “Lahu
postnominal clausal particles.”
11 Sentential structure
11.1 Simple sentences
