Bisu compound and complex sentences

11.2 Compound and complex sentences

Matisoff gives the following formula for a compound sentence 1973:40–41: S compound S major → [ NP n+ VP nonfinal]+[ NP n+ VP final], where n≥1, and verb phrases can be either final or nonfinal. “There is no theoretical limit to the number” of clauses which can be compounded. Matisoff 1973:402 Complex sentences contain an embedded clause and, like other sentences, are major or minor, simple, or compound Matisoff 1973:41. There are four kinds of embedded clauses Matisoff 1973:402: • relative clauses • nominalized clauses • quotative clauses • purpose clauses Certain clausal relationships that would be considered complex in European languages are considered compound in Lahu and other Ngwi languages Matisoff 1973:402: • causality ‘because’ • concession ‘although’ • temporality ‘when’ • conditionality ‘if’ Similar to European languages, the lexeme that defines these coordinate clausal relationships stands at the boundary between the two clauses Matisoff 1973:402.

11.2.1 Bisu compound and complex sentences

Multiclause sentences in Bisu can be divided according to the semantic relations of the clauses; some require conjunctions and some do not. No distinction need necessarily be made between compound and complex sentences Xu 2001:148–153. 245 gu 33 xaŋ 31 tsa 31 p ɣn 55 ʑau 33 le 33 we rice eat finish CONJ go ‘We will go when we have finished eating.’ Xu 2001:144. 11.2.1.1 Coordinated compound sentences The so-called “coordinated compound” sentences require no conjunction. Semantically, these can be divided into three types Xu 2001:149: • consecutive clauses • contrastive clauses • nonconsecutive, noncontrastive clauses Examples of these relationships in English would be • ‘There are two trees ahead, with a person under the tree. Beside the person is a large rock.’ consecutive clauses; Xu 2001:149 • ‘Sparrows can fly; ducks cannot fly.’ contrastive clauses; Xu 2001:150 • ‘There are clouds in the sky; there is grass on the ground.’ neither; Xu 2001:149 11.2.1.2 Temporal sequence sentences Temporal sequences can be expressed by particle pairs that correspond to ‘as soon as’, and ‘no sooner… than’, or with the conjunction ‘after’ Xu 2001:150. 246 ʑoŋ 31 aŋ 31 k ɣŋ 31 pi 31 laŋ 33 ga 33 noŋ 31 ɣ 31 la 31 pu 31 tshu 31 ʑau 31 na 31 they objects give each other after P hand grasp and ask laŋ 33 ga 33 each other ‘After they had exchanged presents, they shook hands and asked after each other.’ 11.2.1.3 Sentences with alternative clauses Alternative clauses are expressed in parallel yesno questions, sometimes prefaced by the Chinese loan word for ‘or’ Xu 2001:150. 247 xai 31 s ɿ 55 ga 33 e 55 lai 55 la 31 ? ʑaŋ 33 e 55 lai 55 la 31 ? or I go P QP he go P QP ‘Either I will go, or he will.’ 11.2.1.4 Hypothetical if-then sentences Hypothetical ‘if…then…’ sentences show a variety of constructions that vary in whether they start the hypothetical clause, end that clause, or both start and end it Xu 2001:151. Examples result clauses simplified from Xu 2001:151: 248 the 55 ne 33 va 31 ʑoŋ 33 ba 31 ko 55 ga 33 ba 31 le 33 if they not enough I not go ‘If they do not have enough, I won’t go.’ 249 m ɯŋ 31 xo 31 l ɯ 33 va 31 ga 33 ba 31 le 33 rain down ifthen I not go ‘If it rains, I won’t go.’ 250 a 55 a 31 ʑaŋ 33 ba 31 l ɯ 33 va 31 ga 33 ba 31 le 33 if he not come ifthen I not go ‘If he doesn’t come, I won’t go.’ 11.2.1.5 Condition-result sentences Condition-result sentences use the expression ‘only if’ or ‘even if’ at the boundary of the two clauses, or the Chinese loan word for ‘no matter’ at the beginning of the first condition clause Xu 2001:152. In addition, the use of a wh-ever item in each of the clauses also produces a condition-result sentence Xu 2001:152. 251 a 55 lo 31 m ɣ 33 ba 31 loŋ 55 ga 33 a 55 lo 31 m ɣ 33 le 33 lai 55 whenever not hot I whenever go P ‘Whenever it’s not hot, I will go.’ 11.2.1.6 Contrasting-clause sentences Contrasting clauses meaning ‘but’, ‘even though’, or ‘although’ can use either of two lexical items meaning ‘but’ at the boundary between the clauses. 11.2.1.7 Cause-effect sentences Cause-effect sentences sometimes use no conjunction between the adjacent clauses, which have the cause clause before the effect clause Xu 2001:153. The conjunctions meaning ‘because’, or either of two meaning ‘therefore’, can also be placed at the boundary of the two clauses Xu 2001:153.

11.2.2 Lahu compound and complex sentences