242
3
lo
3
ho
1
la
2
ha
2
m̩
1
ha Lo-ho La-ha do exhortative
‘Let Loho Laha do it’ Interrogative particles are the final element in question sentences. They signal Fu 1997:183–184:
• rhetorical yesno questions, and • anticipated answers for yesno questions.
No particle is used specifically for wh-questions, even though wh-words are also used to form free relatives and indefinites Fu 1997:103–107.
243
2
n ɯ
3
a
2
bo
2
s ɿ
3
da? you
not go
yet or
‘You haven’t gone yet, have you?’ 244
2
ts’ ɿ
1
mi
1
pa? he
hungry
Q
following “He hasn’t eaten.” ‘He is hungry, isn’t he?’ Fu 1997:184
10 Unrestricted particles
Unrestricted particles are defined as those that may follow a noun, a verb, another particle, or certain adverbials Matisoff 1973:46, 168–169. Unrestricted particles are introduced in section
2.4.2 , “Lahu
postnominal clausal particles.”
11 Sentential structure
11.1 Simple sentences
All Ngwi languages have a predictable SOV order of constituents for simple sentences: 1 subject, 2 object, 3 verb.
11.1.1 Bisu simple sentences
Simple sentences can be divided into subject-predicate SP sentences or non-SP sentences.
11.1.1.1 Subject-predicate sentences
SP sentences can have either simple or complex predicates; if simple, then either verbal, adjectival, or nominal. Simple predicates may have compound concatenated verbs Xu 2001:138. If the predicate is
complex, it is either progressive, continuous, subject-predicate, comparative, or reduplicative Xu 2001:71.
11.1.1.2 Non-subject predicate sentences
These include subjectless sentences and single word or “minor” sentences Xu 2001:138.
11.1.1.3 Bisu existential clauses
In existential clauses, the copula may only be used with negation; affirmatives are expressed using nominal predicates Xu 2001: 138
11.1.2 Lahu simple sentences
According to Matisoff, sentences can be “major” ending in a
VP
or “minor” not ending in a
VP
1973:360.
11.1.2.1 Major sentence phrase structure
Matisoff 1973:40 provides a formula for the simple sentence major:
S
simple
→
NP
n
+
VP
final+ unrestricted particle;
where n≥1. There is also a more detailed version of this formula:
S
simple
→
NP
n
+[
ADV
+
VP
chain+
V
.
P
], +universal
P
+unrestricted final particle;
where n≥1
11.1.3 Lalo simple sentences
Fragments of sentences used as complete utterances are minor sentences, and have no predicate. A simple sentence contains only a single clause, meaning that it has at least a predicate. In addition to the
predicate, a clause may contain noun phrases, clause particles and a final particle Björverud 1998:124.
11.1.4 Nuosu simple sentences
11.1.4.1 Minor sentences
The simplest of sentences are minor sentences, having less structure than a simple sentence because they lack a complete subject-predicate structure. They consist of a single word or a couple of words as
interjections, vocatives, commandswishes, or one-word answersresponses, and formulaic expressions Fu 1997:168–169.
11.1.4.2 Simple sentences
Fu 1997:169 identifies six configurations of the simple sentence: • subject – complement
NP
or
AP
• subject – complement
NP
or
AP
– copula • subject – verb intransitive
• subject – verb of motion – locative object • subject – object – verb transitive
• subject – direct object – indirect object – verb ditransitive. Clausal subjects and predicates are also considered within this framework Fu 1997:170–171. They will
be discussed below under section
11.3. Complex sentences.
11.2 Compound and complex sentences
