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1 Sentence introducers
Sentence introducers consist of interjections and conjunctions, which occur in that order when both are present Matisoff 1973:396. They can be distinguished syntactically and semantically, as interjections
can comprise a complete utterance by themselves, while conjunctions cannot. Syntactically, interjections can also be followed by an utterance-final particle, while conjunctions cannot Matisoff 1973:397. Some
Bisu conjunctions are not sentence introducers; see
section 11.2 .
1.1 Interjections
Where present, interjections are generally the first element of a sentence and can serve as an independent utterance Matisoff 1973:401. Interjections do not support any contextual relationship
between the two clauses where they intervene, and are often “used to give the speaker time to think,” like English “Well” Matisoff 1973:401. Their initial position is stable even under sentence
transformations that re-order “all the other morphemes in the sentence,” which shows that they are only tangentially related to sentential syntax Matisoff 1973:396. Interjections are not part of clausal
structure Xu 2001:135.
1.1.1 Bisu interjections
Bisu interjections are generally monosyllabic with a single vowel. They include the following meanings Xu 2001:135–136:
• pleasant surprise • astonishment or sudden realization
• regret • pain
• a shout or call • assent
1.1.2 Lahu interjections
Matisoff 1973:37, 401 mentions eleven Lahu interjections with the following meanings: • ‘Nya, Nya, I told you so’
• ‘Oh’ mild surprise • ‘Yes’
• ‘That’s right’ • ‘Huh?’ asking for repetition
• ‘My goodness’ surprise, shock, disbelief • ‘Dear me’ chagrin
• ‘Bravo’ approbation • ‘Here; take it.’ when handing something over
• ‘Well…’ pause for thinking • ‘Ah’ satisfaction
Two additional interjections are derived by compounding Matisoff 1973:401: • ‘I suppose so Probably so’ = Yes+ dubative universal final particle
• ‘Is that so?’ = Yes + yesno question particle. Matisoff implies that other such combinations are possible
The tonal contour of many Lahu interjections may be elongated and contorted and the vowel lengthened Matisoff 1973:37, 401.
1.1.3 Lalo interjections
Lalo interjections are a closed class. They are either trisyllabic with an initial a-prefix, or monosyllabic with glottal stop initial. Björverud 1998:77 lists four possible meanings for this closed
class: • Displeased surprise
• ‘Oh dear’ • ‘Yuck’
• ‘Ah’
Interjections constitute their own clause but may be inserted into other clauses at phrase junctions. Prolonging the vowel of the last syllable shows greater emotional involvement.
1.1.4 Nuosu interjections
Fu 1997:147–148 lists twelve Nuosu interjections: • ‘compliance’
• ‘dissent’ • ‘lack of comprehension’
• ‘surprise’ • ‘sorrow’
• ‘hatred’ • ‘welcome’
• ‘amusement’ • ‘direct address’ vocative
• ‘pain or pity’ • ‘unbearable pain’
• ‘praise’ The final two are phonetically interesting because they are clicks: ‘unbearable pain’ is a [
ʘ͡ f], labiodental click, and ‘praise’ is either [|], a dental click, or [
ʘ], a bilabial click.
1.2 Conjunctions
