143 n ɛ́
tjìq like that cook
‘cook like that’ 144 tj
ɛ́ ŋá
like this be ‘be like this’
145 ǹ̩dỳ saq-tji1-liq-sí pí tàq
n ɛ́
dú head thrown back do
PERM
like that drink ‘[The child] drinks by leaning [his] head back.’
8.5 Nuosu adverbs and adverbial expressions
Syntactic position allows the division of adverbs into three types Fu 1997:131: • those that precede their head
• those that follow their head • those that may either precede or follow their head
8.5.1 Adverbs that precede their heads
Fu lists 23 adverbs that precede their heads, including “most of the adverbs of time” Fu 1997:131–133: • often
• for a while • in a moment
• forever • now
• at this very time • just now
• presently • every day
• previously • in olden times
• in the future • all together
• badly • carefully
• tooeveneither • anyway
• only • certainly
• not negation
• once • twice
• three times… All expressions of time are usually placed in first position in the sentence Fu 1997:136.
8.5.2 Adverbs that follow their heads
There are ten adverbs that follow their heads Fu 1997:133–134: • well
• with difficulty • easily
• in pieces • early
• late • yetlonger time
• soon • again
• verytoo
8.5.3 Adverbs that can either precede or follow their heads
Four adverbs can either precede or follow their heads Fu 1997:134: • slowly
• quickly • far
• near
Fu remarks that there are few “adverbs proper” in Nuosu, but that the adverbial particle
2
m̩
2
ta or sometimes
2
m̩ can be appended to adjectives, verbs, nouns, pronouns, phrases, and clauses to form adverbial expressions Fu 1997:134.
146
2
ts’ ɿ
2
ʒ̩
2
m̩
2
ta
3
do
1
ma
3
he. 3
SG
laugh
ADV P
words speak
he speaks laughingly Fu 1997:135 147
2
n ɯ
3
ts’ ɿ
2
ma
3
ts’ ɿ
2
ma
2
m̩
2
ta
3
he 2
SG
one
CLF
one
CLF ADV
P
speak speak one after another Fu 1997:135
When the adjective ‘good’ follows the verb, it becomes adverbial, meaning ‘verb well’ and does not need the adverbial particle. When the adjective ‘good’ precedes its head, the adverbial particle is
required, and the meaning becomes ‘verb precisely’ Fu 1997:136.
8.5.4 Particle that makes adjectives into adverbs
Another adverbializing particle,
2
ko, makes adjectives into adverbs when it is interposed between a verb or adjective and its modifier Fu 1997:122. This particle is homophonous with the imperative particle
discussed in section 9.4.6
and treated by Fu as identical.
148
3
a
2
m̩
2
z ɯ
2
ts’ ɿ
2
ma
2
ʐ̩
2
ko
1
nd ʐa
girl this
CLF
laugh
ADV
beautiful ‘This girl laughs charmingly.’
149
2
ve
2
ve
2
ts’ ɿ
2
ma
2
a
2
n̥
2
ko
2
nd ʐa
flower this
CLF
red
ADV
beautiful ‘This flower is beautifully red.’ Fu 1997:122
9 Verbs
The following has been stated about verbs in relation to syntax: • The verb takes the predicative function in the sentence. It is in clause final position and may form a
verbal chain with other verbs and aspectual and modal particles. All of these are negated by ba
31
‘not’ Xu 2001:78. • Verbs include “all and only the words which may directly follow” one specific negative adverb
similar to Mandarin Chinese méʲ . This is true for “all Tibeto-Burman languages so far studied”
Matisoff 1973:193. • Verbs differ from adjectives in their inability to directly modify a noun Björverud 1998:61.
• Verbs can be negated like an adjective, but cannot take adjectival prefixes Fu 1997:116. In relation to semantics, Xu has stated that verbs express actions, behavior, judgments, and
existence Xu 2001:78.
9.1 Verb types
