• Directional: Verbs showing motion updown and towardaway from the speaker make up this class. • Causative: This consists of one verb, meaning ‘cause’, ‘request’, or ‘allow’. It has an object clause
with an
NP
and a factitive verb whose action is caused, requested, or allowed.
9.1.2 Lahu verb types and verb phrase types
Lahu verbs are either action or adjectival. Action verbs combine freely with all verb particles and they reduplicate only for protracted action or imperatives. Adjectival verbs cannot combine with particles
meaning mutuality, benefaction, certain directional particles, or imperative particles; and they reduplicate frequently Matisoff 1973:193–194.
9.1.2.1 Simple or concatenated verb nucleus
Verb phrases contain a verb nucleus that can be either simple or concatenated. Simple verb nuclei have single head verbs, which can be one of five morphological types Matisoff 1973:192: monomorphemic,
compounded, intensified, reduplicated, and elaborated. Concatenated verbs contain one or more versatile verbs before andor after the head verb and in “some sort of subordinate relationship to the
head verb” Matisoff 1973:199. These verb nuclei can be followed by any of several types of verb particles.
9.1.2.2 Causative
In Lahu, causatives are produced by an auxiliary cɨ “after any verb action or adjectival to express either
the coercive or permissive causative,” to an animate causee Matisoff 1973:244.
9.1.2.3 Reduplication
Verbs are freely reduplicable. Reduplication of action verbs generally indicates repetition or continuation of an action. Reduplication of adjectival verbs generally indicates emphasis or intensity, but can as with
adverbials section 8.3
result in a less definite, approximate meaning Matisoff 1973:292. Reduplicated verbs are commonly used as adverbials in prehead verb position. Disyllabic verbs in adverbial position
can reduplicate as AABB or ABAB or ABB with little or no difference in meaning. 150 chà-
chî̶ =be dirty; phɛ̀ =become: chà-chî̶ chà-chî̶ phɛ̀ ve =become filthy nâ
ʔ-tɔ́ =be black; ph
ɛ̀ =become: nâʔ-nâʔ-tɔ́-tɔ́ phɛ̀ ve =get as black as coal
Matisoff 1973:293, 296
9.1.3 Lalo verb types
Lalo verbs can be divided into two mutually exclusive categories Björverud 1998:61, namely, common verbs and verbs of motion.
The verb ‘do’ often serves as the head of predicates that are modified by semantically heavy adverbials Björverud 1998:61. Verbs of motion require that the locative object is marked by a locative
marker. This is usually done through the addition of locative noun particles Björverud 1998:61. Most verbs of motion are versatile Björverud 1998:61.
Verbs are contrasted with adjectives in the inability of verbs “to directly modify a noun” Björverud 1998:60.
9.1.4 Nuosu verb types
There are three verb types in Nuosu: transitive, intransitive, and auxiliary.
9.1.4.1 Transitive and intransitive
Fu distinguishes transitive from intransitive verbs contra Matisoff as “those which take an object…, although they naturally do not always do so” Fu 1997:116:
151
2
ŋa
3
a
1
tçia ‘I do not fear’
152
2
ŋa
2
ts’ ɿ
3
a
1
tçia I
him do not fear ‘I am not afraid of him.’ Fu 1997:116
In order to distinguish intransitives, Fu shows the effect of “placing two pronouns or substantives before the verb” Fu 1997:117:
153
2
ŋa
2
ts’ ɿ
1
mo
2
o I
he meet past
‘I have met him.’ transitive 154
2
ŋa
2
ts’ ɿ
2
tç’ia I
he jump
‘I and he jump.’ intransitive
9.1.4.2 Auxiliary
The third type of Nuosu verb is the auxiliary verbs Fu 1997:117–120: • modals: can two modals meaning ability or possibility, wish, dare, must, oughtshould
• aspectuals: successful completion of either intransitivetransitive action, successful completion of
transitive action, progressive or imperative action, development of an action to a certain point • directionals: motion toward speaker, motion away from speaker
9.1.4.2.1 Aspectual examples
155
2
ŋa
2
ts’ ɿ
2
m̩
2
to
2
o I
it do completedintransitivetransitive past
‘I have succeeded in doing it.’ The auxiliary ‘
2
da’ also indicates that some action has been successfully completed, but it may only be used where “the object of the action is considered to share in this action.” Fu 1997: 119 So ‘
2
da’ may not be substituted for ‘
2
to’ in the above example. 156
2
ŋa
2
ts’ ɿ
2
m̩
2
da
2
o I
it do
completedtransitive past ‘I have succeeded in doing it.’ Fu 1997:118–119
157
2
ŋa
2
bu
2
ma
2
ts’ ɿ
2
ma
3
he
2
du
2
la I
word this one speak come out comedevelop to a certain point
‘I can pronounce this word.’ Fu 1997:120
9.1.4.2.2 Directional examples
158
3
se
2
la take come
‘Bring it here.’ 159
3
se
2
ʒ̩ take go
‘Take it there.’ Fu 1997:120
9.1.4.3 Passive
Passive voice can be expressed by having the logical object in the subject postion and the agent deleted. Fu 1997:123
160
2
ts’ ɔ
2
ma
1
se
2
s ɿ
2
o man
NUM
kill past
‘A man is killed.’ sic; Fu 1997:123
9.2 Verb concatenations: Number of possible verbs combined
