Bisu verb types Lahu verb types and verb phrase types

• action verbs: combine freely with all verb particles; reduplicate only for protracted action or imperatives • adjectival verbs: cannot combine with particles meaning mutuality, benefaction, certain directional particles or imperative particles; reduplicate frequently Fu 1997:116 uses three syntactic verb types: • transitive • intransitive • auxiliary particles Terminology +- Transitive The terminology “+- transitive” is considered not applicable to Lahu Matisoff 1973:195, or to Lalo Björverud 1998:60, but is considered necessary for Nuosu Fu 1997: 116-117. Simple or concatenated Ngwi verbs can be simple or “concatenated.” Concatenated verbs contain one or more versatile or auxiliary verbs before andor after the head verb see sections 9.3 to 9.7. These verb strings can be followed by several types of verb particles see sections 9.8 and 9.9. Verb particles or versatiles “Versatile verbs” Björverud 1998 are those that can function as main verbs or as nonmain auxiliary verbs in a verb concatenation, usually with a more abstractgrammatical meaning. Verb particles Matisoff 1973, Xu 2001 are divided into four groups, using varying classifications and groupings for different languages. These particles are discussed separately for each language in the following sections. Table 8. Verb particles divided into four groups, according to language Bisu Lalo Lahu Structural particles Aspectual particles Quantifying particles Sentential particles Xu 2001:117 Predicative particles Aspectual particles Clausal particles Final particles Björverud 1998: 74-75 I. directionalitydurativity particles II. Subjective attitudinal particles III. Aspectual particles IV. ImperativeInterjec. particles universal particles, final particles Matisoff 1973: xv-xvi, 316-360

9.1.1 Bisu verb types

Verbs in Bisu can be divided semantically into factitive +- transitive, copular, modal, directional, and causative Xu 2001:78. Factitive and directional verbs can all be negated by the negative adverb ba 31 Xu 2001:78, 81. The copula a 31 must also be negated by ba 31 , while modals can be negated by either ba 31 or a 31 ‘don’t’ Xu 2001:78–79. • Factitive: This includes most verbs, such as human activities, the actions of plants and animals, and the appearance of objects. It also includes “directional” verbs as a subclass. • Copular: Only ‘to be’ is included, used only in negative questions and negative existential clauses. • Modal: This is a closed class of 7 verbs about desires, wishes, or probability. • Directional: Verbs showing motion updown and towardaway from the speaker make up this class. • Causative: This consists of one verb, meaning ‘cause’, ‘request’, or ‘allow’. It has an object clause with an NP and a factitive verb whose action is caused, requested, or allowed.

9.1.2 Lahu verb types and verb phrase types

Lahu verbs are either action or adjectival. Action verbs combine freely with all verb particles and they reduplicate only for protracted action or imperatives. Adjectival verbs cannot combine with particles meaning mutuality, benefaction, certain directional particles, or imperative particles; and they reduplicate frequently Matisoff 1973:193–194. 9.1.2.1 Simple or concatenated verb nucleus Verb phrases contain a verb nucleus that can be either simple or concatenated. Simple verb nuclei have single head verbs, which can be one of five morphological types Matisoff 1973:192: monomorphemic, compounded, intensified, reduplicated, and elaborated. Concatenated verbs contain one or more versatile verbs before andor after the head verb and in “some sort of subordinate relationship to the head verb” Matisoff 1973:199. These verb nuclei can be followed by any of several types of verb particles. 9.1.2.2 Causative In Lahu, causatives are produced by an auxiliary cɨ “after any verb action or adjectival to express either the coercive or permissive causative,” to an animate causee Matisoff 1973:244. 9.1.2.3 Reduplication Verbs are freely reduplicable. Reduplication of action verbs generally indicates repetition or continuation of an action. Reduplication of adjectival verbs generally indicates emphasis or intensity, but can as with adverbials section 8.3 result in a less definite, approximate meaning Matisoff 1973:292. Reduplicated verbs are commonly used as adverbials in prehead verb position. Disyllabic verbs in adverbial position can reduplicate as AABB or ABAB or ABB with little or no difference in meaning. 150 chà- chî̶ =be dirty; phɛ̀ =become: chà-chî̶ chà-chî̶ phɛ̀ ve =become filthy nâ ʔ-tɔ́ =be black; ph ɛ̀ =become: nâʔ-nâʔ-tɔ́-tɔ́ phɛ̀ ve =get as black as coal Matisoff 1973:293, 296

9.1.3 Lalo verb types