Lalo noun types, compounding, and derivation

2.1.2.2 Polymorphemic noun structures Structurally, Lahu nouns can consist of just one morpheme simple, or they can become polymorphemic by compounding Matisoff 1973:53–79, reduplication Matisoff 1973:47, 80–81, or “elegant” extension Matisoff 1973:81–85 to a four-morpheme structure with identical first and third morphemes A-B-A-C or identical second and fourth morphemes A-B-C-B Matisoff 1973:82. 8 y ɛ̀ q ɔ̀ʔ y ɛ̀ l ɛ House corner house middle ‘every corner in the house’ 9 qhâ ʔ q ɔ̀ʔ qhâ ʔ l ɛ village corner village middle ‘every corner in the village’ Matisoff 1973:83 All polysyllabic structures in an NP are considered compound nouns except the following: noun particles, numerals, classifiers, the determiner ‘thisthese’, and the possessor nuclei in genitive constructions Matisoff 1973:53–54. 10 và ʔ šā chu ɔ̀ c �̂ compound pig meat fat raw thing ‘raw pork-fat’ Matisoff 1973:54 11 cà-pí nê ʔ ve ɔ̀ phɨ genitive starling POSS nest ‘a starling’s nest’ Matisoff 1973:56 2.1.2.3 Derivation 2.1.2.3.1 Affixes The nominalizing prefix ‘ɔ̀-’ can be affixed to nouns where it is often, but not always, optional and verbs where it can form cognate-object combinations Matisoff 1973:68. Examples with nouns: • má = ɔ̀-má ‘son-in-law’, but šā ‘animal’ ≠ ɔ̀-šā ‘meat’ Example with a verb: • m ɛ ‘to name’, ɔ̀-mɛ ‘a name’, ɔ̀-mɛ mɛ ve ‘to give a name to’ A plural morpheme - hɨ is used only rarely, primarily to produce ‘we’, ‘you’, and ‘they’ by suffixation to the singular pronouns. It can also combine with some proper nouns to mean ‘the Shans’, ‘the northern Thai’ in general, or ‘Jalaw and his friendsgroupfamily’. With common nouns referring to living things, it is used rarely: šālā-g̈ūn-hɨ ‘doctors, the medical profession’ or kh�́-y�̀-hɨ ‘sambar deer in general’ Matisoff 1973:65.

2.1.3 Lalo noun types, compounding, and derivation

2.1.3.1 Noun Types Noun types in Lalo consist of pronouns, common nouns, locative nouns, and proper nouns. 2.1.3.1.1 Pronouns Since Björverud defines nouns as words that “may immediately precede a noun particle,” she considers pronouns in Lalo a type of noun Björverud 1998:50–51. Pronouns are discussed in section 7.1 . 2.1.3.1.2 Common and locative nouns A limited number of common and locative nouns can be marked as demonstrative, interrogative, or indefinite Björverud 1998:50, but no examples have been found. Among the four types of nouns, only common nouns are followed by a Num- CLF phrase Björverud 1998:50. 2.1.3.1.3 Proper nouns Proper nouns can be semantically divided into personal names, place names, and names of ethnic groups Björverud 1998:52. Personal names used to consist of a prefix, numeral indicating ordinal positioning among the person’s siblings, and a suffix for females, since the male suffix had become obsolete in an earlier generation. Naming now follows local Chinese practices Björverud 1998:52. Ethnic names are used to apply to individuals, not groups. Only six such names exist, and all but one end in a suffix that is homonymous with, and related to, the “agentive” particle Björverud 1998:53–54, 152. 2.1.3.2 Compounding Besides borrowing many words from Chinese, Lalo can create new words by compounding and by affixation Björverud 1998:55. There are two kinds of compounds Björverud 1998:56: • genitival compounds for example, bee+water=honey, which accounts for a “substantial” fraction of all nouns • attributional compounds for example, turnip+red+small=carrot, where the adjectival attribute becomes a part of a new noun whose parts are not deducible from the original morphemes 2.1.3.3 Derivation 2.1.3.3.1 Affixes In Lalo affixes can be divided into those referring to gender, size, and importance. When combined, “the gender suffixes usually precede the size suffixes.” The most productive of these is the homonym for ‘son’, which is used as a diminutive Björverud 1998:58–59. 2.1.3.3.2 Bound morphemes Nominalization of verb phrases can be done with any of five bound morphemes: • agentive for example, sell-grass-er=grass-seller • instrumental wipe-thing=rag • locative book-study-place=school • thematic horse-grass-feed-theme=grass with which to feed the horse; similar to a relative clause, • collective three-mother-group=mother and two children Björverud 1998:55, 152–155 Such nouns function exactly like “any other noun with regard to quantification and modification” Björverud 1998:54.

2.1.4 Nuosu noun types, compounding, derivation, and nominalization