Order Qha-adverbials of manner, equality, and extent

8.3 Lahu adverbs and adverbial expressions

In Lahu, it is more useful to speak of “adverbial expressions,” than adverbs. Adverbial expressions include a range from single morphemes to whole clauses. There are fewer than twenty single words that qualify as “true adverbs” Matisoff 1973:265–277. These include all the six morphemes of negation: • mâ, before verbs • mâ hêʔ, after nouns and nominalized clauses • tâ, the negative imperative • mâ-yo, a less-used negative imperative • tèʔ-chí, superlative negation • c �̂ -c�̀ not toovery and twelve others: • very diligently g̈â-thèʔ • quicklysoon hâʔ • moreplease a-cí • graduallyslowly a- yɛ́ • first a- lɔ́ • recently ɔ̀- š�́ • thuslike this qhe • for free a-qhe- lê • gratuitously tû • almost à-là-qhe • how qhà-qhe, and • completely qha 128 tè ʔ-chí mâ qôʔ lâ nothing not say P - BEN ‘He didn’t tell us anything.’ Matisoff 1973:271 129 c �̂-c�̀ tâ- g̈�̀ not too much don’t laugh ‘Don’t laugh too much.’ Matisoff 1973:272 130 a-cí dà ʔ more good ‘better’ Matisoff 1973:273

8.3.1 Order

Adverbial expressions are found directly before the verbal nucleus defined in section 9.2.2, par. 2 , and often end with a subordinating “adverbializing” particle ɛ̀ Matisoff 1973:265, 278. The negative adverb mâ must stand immediately before the head-verb or before any prehead concatenation in negations of the entire clause, or immediately before the posthead versatileauxiliary verb if only that verb is being negated Matisoff 1973:265–268. Another exception to the rule that adverbial expressions precede the head-verb besides the negative adverb mâ’s sometimes not being after the V -head, one other true adverb can indeed must occur after the V -head: “be nearly V -ingbe on the verge of V -ing” ŋɔ- ŋɔMatisoff 1973:302. 131 y ɔ̂-h ɨ yà ʔ dà ʔ ŋɔ-ŋɔ te ve They quarrel P -mutual about to happen P -genitive ‘They’re on the verge of quarreling with one another.’ Matisoff 1973:302

8.3.2 Qha-adverbials of manner, equality, and extent

Adverb expressions using ‘completely’ qha+ verb + ɛ̀ are very productive for adverbs of manner using also nongradable adjectival verbs, for example Matisoff 1973:278–281, 283: • qha+‘be satiated’ bû ʔ+verb= verb to satiety • qha+‘be full’ bî+verb= verb abundantly • qha+‘be correct’ c ɔ̂+verb=verb skillfully 132 qha-p ə̀ g̈a šī ò lâ all finish manage understand P - PERF P -yn Q ‘Has he managed to understand it completely yet?’ Qha-adverbials using ‘completely’ qha+ gradable adjectival verb + optional ɛ̀ andor reduplication are productive for adverbs of equality Matisoff 1973:282: • qha+‘be numerous’ mâ+verb = to verb in equal amounts • qha+‘high’ mu+verb = to verb equally high • qha+‘big’ hī̶+verb= to verb equally big 133 qha- fī̶ ɛ̀ mâ g̈a qay all distance P - ADV not able go ‘He couldn’t go the same distance.’ Matisoff 1973:282 The following table shows how adverbs of equality are produced, applying various verbs. Table 6. Adverbs of equality ‘completely’ qha gradable adjectival verb optional element + verb ‘to verb equally’ ‘completely’ qha ‘be numerous’ mâ ɛ̀ ye use to use in equal amonts ‘completely’ qha ‘be high’ mu mu t âʔ climb to climb equally high ‘completely’ qha ‘hī̶’ big ɛ̀ t ɔ̂ʔ cut to cut the same size Qha-adverbials reduplicate in several ways, but the most common is A-BB. Reduplication often intensifies the meaning, for example, qha+ ‘be satiated’ bû ʔ  qha- bûʔ- bûʔ: ‘to utter satiety’, but sometimes it weakens the meaning, for example, qha+‘to be sufficient’ l ɔ̀ʔ = ‘verb sufficiently,’ but qha-l ɔ̀ʔ-lɔ̀ʔ means ‘verb about enough’ Matisoff 1973:280–281. ABAB reduplication is usual for a smaller number of qha-adverbials, for example, qha+ ‘to reach’ gà= ‘verb all the way’. An example with “go qay+ imperative ʔ” is: qha-gà qha-gà qay-ʔ= ‘Go until you really get there’ Matisoff 1973:281. Qha-adverbials are sometimes displaced from preverbal position to VP -final position, as an afterthought Matisoff 1973:284. 134 nî c ǝ ̀ y ɛ̂ phɛ̀ʔ ve qha- mâ ɛ̀ two kinds use become nominalizer all be numerous P - ADV ‘You can use both kinds—equally wellin equal amounts.’

8.3.3 Reduplication