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speaking instructional materials based on Task-Based Language Teaching for the extracurricular activity of the 2
nd
graders of SD Pangudi Luhur Yogyakarta.
a. Kemp’s Model Kemp, 1977
Kemp argues that there are three questions which are needed to answer, namely “what must be learned?” Objectives, “what procedures and resources
will be best to reach the desired learning level?” Activities and Resources, and “how will we know when the required learning has taken place?” Evaluation.
The instructional design plan stated by Kemp includes eight elements, those are:
Step 1. Defining Goals, Topics, and General Purposes
Ordinarily, instructional design planning begins with the introduction of the board goals of the institution or school system which can be derived from the
society, students and subject areas. After defining the goals, the designer then selects major topics within the content area. The next step is expressing general
purposes from each of the chosen topics.
Step 2. Discovering Leaner’s Characteristics
In order to make sure the success of the learners in their educational program, the learners are considered and respected as individuals as well as
groups in which we should find out the characteristics. There are two factors to be considered to discover the learner’s characteristics, namely academic and social
factors. Academic factors include number of the students, academic background, level of intelligence, motivation for studying the subject, study habits, etc. The
social factors include the information about age, maturity, relation among students, special talents, socioeconomic situation and others. The other factors
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should also involve are learning conditions and learning styles. Kemp 1977:19 states that “learning conditions refer to groups of factors that can affect a person’s
ability to concentrate, absorb, and retain information.”
Step 3. Specifying Learning Objective
Learning objectives must be stated in forms of activities that will best promote learning. According to Kemp 1977:24, there are three categories of
objectives; those are cognitive, psychomotor and affective. The cognitive is mostly used in educational program which consist knowledge, comprehension,
application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. The designer formulates the specific instructional objectives that should be achieved based on the observable
and measurable students’ attitudes. The designer should also consider the action verb in specifying each of the learning objectives because action verb relates to
certain level of objectives.
Step 4. Organizing Subject Content
Subject content should be related to the student’s learning experiences. The content should be related to the objectives that have been chosen and the student’s
needs. Kemp states 1977:44 that subject content consist of “the selection and organizing of the specific knowledge facts and information, skills step-by-step
procedures, conditions and requirements, and attitudinal factors of any topic.”
Step 5. Developing Pre-assessment
Kemp offers two questions in this step 1977:50, 1 is the student prepared to study the topic or unit? and 2 Is the student already competent in some of the
stated objectives? There are two kinds of tests, the first is prerequisite testing and
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pretesting. Prerequisite testing aims to know whether the students have the appropriate background preparation for the topic while pretesting aims to
determine which of the objectives students may already have achieved.
Step 6. Planning the Teaching Learning Activities and Resources
Kemp 1977:55 states In order to achieve good learning, the designer must determine the most efficient and effective methods and then select materials
which provide learning experiences that will associate with each of the objectives. The designer selects teaching learning activities and instructional resources that
can be applied to achieve the specific instructional objective appropriate for accomplishing each objective.
Step 7. Organizing Support services
Identify support services of facilities which are required to implement the design plan such as funds, facilities, equipment, etc. The designer should be able
to manage the support service carefully, especially with the budget. The budget can be divided into two sections; the first one is the budget during the
development which covers all the budgets during the program preparation and the second is budget during the implementation which cover all budgets during the
program’s implementation.
Step 8. Evaluation
In this step, the designer is ready to measure the learning outcomes relating to the objectives by determining the standards of achievement. Evaluation can be
used as the measurement. There are two kinds of evaluations, namely formative and summative evaluations. The formative evaluation is done during the
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development and tryouts while inversely the summative evaluation is done at the end of the course. Kemp states 1977:98 that there are several ways of evaluating
the developed program, 1 test result, 2 reactions from the students, 3 observations of students at work, 4 suggestions from colleagues. The steps of
Kemp’s model are illustrated in Figure 2.1.
b. Yalden’s Model Yalden, 1987
