15
development and tryouts while inversely the summative evaluation is done at the end of the course. Kemp states 1977:98 that there are several ways of evaluating
the developed program, 1 test result, 2 reactions from the students, 3 observations of students at work, 4 suggestions from colleagues. The steps of
Kemp’s model are illustrated in Figure 2.1.
b. Yalden’s Model Yalden, 1987
Yalden offers seven stages in designing materials. Further, Yalden suggests the use of communicative syllabus design 1987:88. The seven steps will be
elaborated on the next page:
Goals, topics and General
Purposes Evaluation
Revision
Learning Objectives
Supports services
Teaching Learning
Activities, Resources
Pre- assessment
Subject Content
Learner characteristics
Figure 2.1: The Kemp’s Instructional Model Kemp, 1977:9
16
Step 1. The Needs Survey
Yalden argues that conducting needs survey can gather a great deal of information about the learners 1987:101. Further, this step is very important
considering the learners’ needs. The need survey can show who the learners and it is aimed at establishing realistic and acceptable objectives. Therefore, the needs
survey include the identification of the communication requirements, personal needs, motivations, relevant characteristics and resources of the learners.
Step 2. The Description of Purpose
The results of the needs survey will be used as the basis in developing the purpose of the program. After the designer does needs survey, the designer
clarifies the purpose of the language program and “this will establish the foundation for the major decision facing the language course designer when he or
she goes on the next step” 1987:105.
Step 3. The Choice of a Syllabus
“There is no single model of syllabus design which is universally agreed upon” 1987:108. The designer can combine more than one syllabus in order to
make the course design more reliable.
Step 4. Production of Proto Syllabus
This stage will give much information about the content in which the syllabus will have 1987: 138. In order to gain the description of the syllabus
content, the designer should select the most effective syllabus and then determine the content covered by the syllabus. The content may include the communicative
functions, discourse skills, and study skills.
17
Step 5. Production of Pedagogical Syllabus
In this stage, the designer chooses words and phrases based on the function and the topics. The designer also develops teaching, learning and testing
approaches.
Step 6. Development and Implementation of Classroom Procedure
It includes the selection of the exercise type and teaching techniques, preparation of the lesson plans and weekly schedule.
Step 7. Evaluation of Students, Program and Teaching Process
Yalden states that evaluation covers two significant aspects. Firstly, evaluating or testing the students in the program and secondly, evaluating the
teaching as well as the over-all design of the course. This is the recycling step because the whole cycle can begin again at this point or stage.
The Yalden’s instructional design model is described in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2: The Yalden’s Instructional Model Yalden, 1987:88
2. Task-Based Language Teaching
