Kemp Design Model Instructional Design Theory

study, for each of which the teacher explicitly expresses the general statement of purposes. 2 Enumerating the important characteristics of the learners According to Kemp, teacher should recognize and respect the student as individual learner. Even ideally each person should be assisted in pursuing learning at his or her own pace and with his or her own selection of learning experiences and materials. Knowing the learner characteristics, the teacher must obtain information of the learners’ capabilities, needs, and interests. There should affect the emphases in instructional planning, including the information the determination of the topics and the level at which topics are introduced, the choice and sequencing of objectives, the depth of treatment, and the variety of learning activities. 3 Specifying the learning objectives This step is specifying the learning objectives to be achieved in terms of measurable student behavioral outcomes. Kemp states that this part is the difficult part but it is essential. Learning objective is concerning with learning as the outcome of instruction. Learning requires active effort by the learner. Thus, all objectives must be stated in terms of activities that will best promote learning. Objective tell students what goals they must attain, what ideas and skills will be included in the upcoming instruction, and what types of behavior will be expected during evaluation 4 Listing the Subject Content Subject content comprises the selection and organizing the specific knowledge facts and information, skills step-by step procedures, conditions, and requirements and attitudinal factors of any topic. In selecting subject content, Kemp offers four questions. Those are: What specifically must be taught or learned in this topic? What facts, concepts, and principles relate to this topic? What steps are involved in necessary procedures relating to this topic? And what techniques are required in performing essential skills? When content is being selected, consideration might also be closely related to the objectives and the students’ needs. 5 Developing pre-assessment This assessment is to determine the students’ background and present a level of knowledge about the topic. In order to plan learning activities for which students are prepared and at the same time on things they already know, Kemp suggests to find out specifically to what extend each student has acquired the necessary prerequisites for studying the topic and what the student may have already mastered about the subject to be studied. By the pre-assessment, he added, the objectives of student may have already achieved. 6 Selecting teachings learning activities and instructional resources This will treat the subject content so students will accomplish the objectives. In selecting teaching learning activities and instructional resources, Kemp argues that there is no formula for matching activities to objectives. Teachers need to know the strengths and weaknesses of alternative methods and of various materials. Then they can make their selections in terms of the student characteristics and needs that will best serve the objectives they have established. 7 Coordinating such support services as budget, personnel, facilities, equipment, and schedules This activity is to carry out the instructional plan. According to Kemp, the support services required to implement the design plan are: budget, facilities, equipment, time, and schedules and coordinating with other activities. He adds, there are many interrelated elements in any instructional situation, and each needs careful consideration during the appropriate planning step. Support services must be considered at the same time instructional plans are being made and materials being selected. In addition, consideration must be given to coordinating the planned program with other operational aspect of institution student’s schedules, guidance services, and so forth 8 Evaluation Evaluating students’ learning in terms of their accomplishment of objectives, with a view to revising and reevaluating any phases of the plan that need improvement. Kemp argues that evaluation is the payoff step in the instructional design plan. The teachers are ready to measure the learning outcomes relating to the objectives. The objectives indicate what the evaluation should be. By stating them clearly, teachers have assured measuring directly what they are teaching. At present, he adds, most teachers prepare a final examination for a topic, unit, or course as the teaching time draws to a close. The teacher usually then develops essay or objective questions that refer to the subject content covered in the course or unit, making little reference to the objectives. Figure 1: Kemp’s Instructional Design Model Kemp, 1977: 9 According to Kemp, the plan is a flexible process. There is interdependence among the eight elements; decisions relating to one may affect others. The planners can start with whichever element they are ready to start with and then move back and forth to the other steps. The sequence and order are the planners’ choice.

b. Yalden Design Model

Yalden offers a communicative syllabus in designing a set of instructional materials. The kind of syllabus that incorporates a consideration of all ten components is increasingly referred to as communicative Yalden, 1987: 87. The principle on which a syllabus is structured is different from those for selecting the linguistic content to be included in it. The teacher has to ensure that the learners acquire the ability to communicate. Yalden 1987 presents the stages to design a communicative syllabus. The model consists of seven stages, namely: 1 Needs Survey This stage is necessary to gather information about the learners such as personal needs, motivation, and learners’ characteristic. Needs surveys is conducted to identify as much as possible of the learners’ need in the designing of the program in order to establish acceptable objectives. 2 Description about the purpose The result of the need survey will guide the syllabus designer to clarify the purpose of the language program. The description of purpose is prepared in term of: 1 the characteristic of the students, and 2 the skills of the students on entry to and on exit from the program. 3 Selection and development of syllabus type It is in terms of proto syllabus and physical constraint on the program Yalden, 1987: 96. The syllabus does not only concern with anything to be taught and the way to do it. It also concerns with the teaching materials such as textbook and exercise as the realization of syllabus itself. 4 The photo syllabus production In this stage, the content of the syllabus will be decided. It means the description of language use to be covered in the program Yalden, 1987: 96. The designer specified the description of the content of the syllabus. Selection and combination of contents are designed in line with the type of syllabus. 5 The pedagogical production Pedagogical syllabus represents a plan to implement the content of the language teachinglearning at the classroom level. The language program designer, in this step, should realize the syllabus in the form of teaching-learning materials and testing approach. 6 The development and implementation of classroom procedures In this stage, the designer is supposed to develop the classroom procedure such as selection of exercise types and teaching techniques, preparation of lesson plans, and preparation of the weekly schedules. Yalden also states about the teacher training in this stage, such as creation of teaching materials. 7 Evaluation The evaluation has two broad aspects; those are the students in the program and the teaching as well as the over-all design. Then this is labeled as the recycling stage because the whole cycle can be begun again at this point. Those stages represent operations for the sake of clarity in Yalden’s model