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develop fluency in which students should be able to ‘negotiate meaning, use communication strategies, correct misunderstandings, and work to avoid
communication breakdowns. Hence, the activities focusing on fluency must reflect the natural use of language, point out on how to achieve communication, use
meaningful language, use communication strategies, produce unpredictable language, and use the language in context. On the other hand, accuracy focuses on
“creating correct examples of language use” in which the activities will depict the classroom use of language, focus on the form of correct language, practice language
which is not based on context, practice small samples of language, meaningful communication is not necessary, has control choice of language.
In order to develop fluency, there are three conditions required in which these conditions are related to the characteristics of fluency that have been described
previously. Nation 2009 describes that fluency is developed when the condition such as meaning-focused, related to previous knowledge and best performance are
able to gain. The first cond ition is “the activity is meaning-focused” means that the
learners are required to be fluent in using the language in the real communication context and they are able to convey the message using the language fluently. The
second condition relates to the le arners’ previous knowledge of the language in
which using this knowledge the learners are able to express their ideas related to familiar topics and the linguistics features they have gained before. The third
condition relates to support and encouragement in which those aspects are needed by the learners to speak fluently, fast, without hesitation and use the language
naturally. Based on those three conditions, it is important to create a situation in PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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learning where the learners have a broad opportunity for practicing speaking either in the classroom or outside the classroom so that they will enhance either the
fluency or accuracy in the real situation.
2. Teaching Speaking
Teaching speaking relates to other skills such as listening, reading and writing. However, teaching speaking also requires not merely teaching the
grammatical aspects of the language, but it also relates to other aspects such as social, discourse, as well as strategic Richards, 2002. Teaching speaking itself is
described by Nunan 2003 as: …to teach ESL learners to produce the English speech sounds and sound
patterns, use word and sentence stress, intonation patterns and the rhythm of the second language, select appropriate words and sentences according to the
proper social setting, audience, situation and subject matter, organize their thoughts in a meaningful and logical sequence, use language as a means of
expressing values and judgments, use the language quickly and confidently with few unnatural pauses, which is called as fluency.
It means that when teaching speaking, it is important to enhance the learners ’ ability
in producing the patterns, appropriateness, expressions which refer to the setting, the people they talk to, the topics as well as to consider the use of language as the
means of communicating their ideas. It is also influential to develop fluency in order to develop meaningful communication.
In language teaching methodology, communicative approach gives its influence in which it encourages the method where learners are given changes to
use language not merely based on linguistics features but also to communicate meaning Bygate, 2003. This kind of activity also leads to fluency which was
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firstly introduced by Brumfit 1984a, in Bygate, 2003 where the learners are able to use their knowledge of the language to communicate meaning. However,
speaking skill is not merely about fluency but also accuracy. In order to gain those two aspects, Bygate 1984a in David, 2001 proposed
‘interaction routines’ or ‘information routines’.
a. Types of classroom speaking performance
Oral production or speaking performance involves certain criteria which the learners are expected to carry out in the classroom. According to Brown 2001
there are six speaking performances that the learners need to gain. First, imitative speaking performance in which usually gives a small portion in classroom speaking
which intended not for the purpose of meaningful interaction rather than to focus on some particular element of language form. Second, intensive speaking which
intended to practice some phonological or grammatical aspect of language. Intensive speaking may be resulted from part of some pair work activity or it can
be self-initiated where learners are going over certain forms of language. Third, responsive activity which includes short replies to teacher or student
initiated questions or comments on one of the student speeches in the classroom which do not extend into dialogues, but it is meaningful and authentic. Fourth,
transactional dialogue which is the extension of responsive language, it is carried out in order to convey or exchange information specific information. This kind of
activity can be part of group activity as well. Fifth, interpersonal dialogue which is carried out in order to maintain the social relationships than the transmission of
facts and information. The last is extensive monologue which can be in form of oral PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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reports, summary, or short speech in which the register is more formal and deliberative. The extensive monologue is usually given to the students in
intermediate or advanced level which can be planned or impromptu.
b. Teaching conversation
There are two approaches that characterise current teaching conversation according to Richards 1990: 76-77 in Brown 2001; the indirect and direct
approaches. The indirect approach tends to let the learners set loose in engaging the interaction, in which it implies that one does not actually teach conversation, but
rather that the learners acquire conversational competence by engaging meaningful tasks.
The direct approach “involves planning a conversation program around the specific macro skills, strategies, and processes that are involved in fluent
conversation.” It is more likely to focus on using the language to complete the task such as explicitly call students’ attention to conversational rules, conventions, and
strategies. Hayriye Kayi 2006 states that there are some activities that can be used to promote speaking such as discussion, role play, simulations, information gap,
brainstorming, storytelling, interviews, story completion, picture narrating, picture describing, find the differences and playing cards.
c. Teaching pronunciation
Having a good pronunciation is important to develop a normal pronunciation of a new language, especially intelligibility Derwing and Munro, 2005 in Nation,
2009. Besides that, phonological loop is also the mechanism factor that is related PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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to working memory. “The phonological loop is the brain saying a word or phrase over and over to itself in order to keep it in working memory or to help it move into
long- term memory” Nation, 2009: p. 75. For the second language learners, the
size of their working memory is affected by their knowledge of patterns of pronunciation and grammar in that language. Hence, it is important to teach
pronunciation so that the learners will be familiar with the patterns and rules in order to develop stable pronunciation.
d. Principles for designing speaking techniques
In order to achieve the goal of speaking activities, it is important to consider some aspects which relate to the content, activities, and the learners. There are seven
principles for designing speaking techniques according to Brown 2001. First, use techniques that cover the spectrum of learner needs, from language-based focus on
accuracy to message-based focus on interaction, meaning, and fluency. It is important to provide interactive activities that are not focusing on grammatical
pointers and pronunciation tips. Drilling can be done as long as it is meaningful and it does not make the students get bored with the repitious drilling. Second, provide
intrinsically motivating techniques. The students need to know the activity the teacher provides will give them some benefits. It is also suggested to try to appeal
to students’ ultimate goals and interests, to their need for knowledge, for status, for achieving competence and autonomy, and for “being all that they can be”. Third,
encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful contexts. The use of the authentic material in meaningful contexts is necessary even though it is not easy to
do. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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Fourth, provide appropriate feedback and correction. It is important to give corrective feedback that is appropriate for the moment. Hence, the knowledge of
English is very useful since the EFL learners usually depend on the teacher on giving the feedback. Fifth, capitalize on natural link between speaking and listening
Even though the goal of the lesson is to reinforce the speaking skill, it is undeniable that listening as the input to oral communication plays an important role too. Skills
in producing the language are often initiated through comprehension and those two skills may reinforce each other.
Sixth, give students opportunities to initiate oral communication. Part of oral communication competence is the ability to initiate conversations, to nominate
topics, to ask questions, to control conversation and change the subject. Therefore, it is important to give a chance for the students to initiate the conversation. Seventh,
encourage the development of speaking strategies. The learners may not have the thought of developing their own personal strategies for accomplishing oral
communicative purposes. Therefore, it is important to introduce and apply the learning strategies for speaking.
3. Mobile-Assisted Language Learning MALL
Teaching language using technologies has been embarked in the last decades. The use of computers in Computer-Assisted Language Learning CALL appeared
in the early 1980s. Along with the growth of Information and Communications Technology ICT, CALL has moved to integrate the use of internet and web-based
tools. In the 1990s the term TELL Technology Enhanced Language Learning appeared as the growth of ICT Dudeney, 2007.
