There are two models of instructional material designs that are discussed. They are chosen because their models support this study and easier to understand.
a. Yalden’s Model
Yalden 1987:88 proposes eight stages in a language program development. The first stage is the needs survey. “When needs survey is being undertaken, there is
a potential great deal of information to be gathered. The information includes communication requirement, personnel needs and motivations, and relevant
characteristics of learners as well as those of their partners for learning” Yalden, 1987:88. According to Hutchinson and Waters 1987:54, there are two elements in
needs analysis; target needs and learning needs. Hutchinson and Waters define target needs as what the learner needs to do in the target situation. The target needs include
necessities, lacks, and wants. Necessities is “the type of need determined by the demands of the target situation, that is, what the learner has to know in order to
function effectively in the target situation”, Hutchinson and Waters 1987:55.
Lacks, according to Hutchinson and Waters 1987:56 is the gap between the target proficiency and the existing proficiency of the learners. Because of that definition, it
is not enough if a course designer is only understand the necessities to identify the learners’ lacks, but also ha to know what the learners already know the learners’
background knowledge. Hutchinson and Waters define wants as what learners want to learn and know.
The second stage is description of purpose. Description of the purpose is to be prepared by considering the students’ characteristics and skills on entry and on
exit on the program. By identifying the purpose of their needs, the designer could form the appropriate language content from simplest thing to the wider one. It can be
19 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
said that understanding the learners’ purpose will guide the teacher to design the instructional materials that is suitable in learners’ field.
The third stage is selection development of syllabus type. “A syllabus is defined as a document or statement of what will or at least what should be learned
and taught” Hutchinson and Waters, 1994: 80. Yalden 1987: 108 describes the syllabus as an instrument by which the teacher can achieve a degree between the
needs and aims of the learners and activities that will take place in the classroom. “Syllabus is very crucial for teachers because syllabus is a plan of work used by a
teacher as a guideline for teaching content” Robinson, 1991: 35. Besides, a syllabus gives the teacher idea of what the course will be and to what direction it should be
brought and done. Yalden 1987: 114 proposes a communicative syllabus which consists of six types. The first type is structural-functional syllabus. This type
maintains a separation of forms and communicative function. It suggests that the linguistics forms precede the communicative functions. The second type is structure
and function syllabus. It enables the learners to study the linguistics forms and communicative function simultaneously.
The third is variable focus syllabus. It means that the emphasis of the language program shifts is according to the level of
proficiency. This implies that the shifts follow the learners’ need. The fourth is functional syllabus. According to Nunan 1988:35, function is described as the
communicative purposes e.g. agreeing, apologizing, promising, and advising. The objective that is stated in this type of syllabus is in term of communicative function,
but the linguistics forms, however, are not abandoned. The fifth is notional syllabus. This type is suggested to the learners who have been in adequate proficiency of
English but still need to be specified in a very particular purpose. The last type is 20
fully communicative syllabus. It is also called a learner-generated syllabus. The learners can be called as the source of input.
The fourth stage is production of a proto syllabus. Selection and combination of contents are conducted according to the type of syllabus. The description of
language and language use will be covered in this program. “The teacher has to start mapping out the syllabus content, which is usually inventing a list of topics and
functions. The result of mapping out will serve as the guidelines for the teacher in preparing and compiling the syllabus for the learners easier” Yalden, 1987: 139.
The fifth stage is production of a pedagogical syllabus. “The pedagogical syllabus provides a repertoire of words and phrases chosen as exponents of function
and suitable to the topics identified as important to the learners” Yalden, 1987: 144. The sixth stage is the development and implementation of classroom
procedure. The communicative syllabus brings a significant change in the teachers’ role. The teachers should regard themselves as a facilitator than a leader. The
classroom procedures, therefore, are conducted based on the learners’ activities rather than a teacher. According to Yalden 1987: 89 the development and
implementation of classroom procedure covers selection of exercise types and teaching techniques, preparation of lesson plans, and preparation of weekly
schedules. Those three procedures should be monitored weekly by the teacher in order to see the classroom development.
The seventh stage is evaluation. It can be done in every stage, so that it enables the program designer to revise the type and the content of the syllabus. The
evaluation recycling stage relates to the students program and teaching. 21
The last stage is the recycling. It is intended to determine the harmony between goal set and students’ performance to reassess the content and to revise the
materials and the methodological procedures used in the course. These stages are presented in the following figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2: The Yalden’s Instructional Design Model 1987:88
b. Kemp’s Model
