Review of Related Studies

9 Subject pronouns are used as subjects of sentences. For example, ‘Amy has a bike. She bikes to work.’ The word ‘she’ refers to Amy, and it stands as a subject pronoun of the sentence since it is located as the subject of the sentence. Object pronouns are used as the object of verbs. For example, ‘Bella never skipped the class. I know her very well.’ The word ‘her’ refers to Bella, and it stands as the object pronouns of the sentence based on its function as the object of the verb in the sentence. Possessive pronouns are not followed immediately by a noun; they stand alone. For example, ‘That book is mine. Yours is over here.’ The words ‘mine’ and ‘yours’ represent the possession of the noun ‘book’. That kind of function does not need any following noun, that is why they stand as possessive pronouns of the sentence. Possessive adjectives are followed immediately by a noun; they do not stand alone. For example, ‘Your pencil is here. Her pencil is over there.’ As the definition stated, the possessive adjectives of the sentence are the words ‘your’ and ‘her’. We call them possessive adjectives by the fact that a noun ‘pencil’ follows them, they do not stand alone. ii. Vocatives A vocative is a subclass of proper nouns that has another function, which is to call or indicate the person or thing that is addressed by their name. In English, people do this by merely calling the name of the person. Compared to reference, this function is a bit different. 10 “Other kind of title proper name often come in two distinct set, one for use in address as vocative in second person usage and the other for use in reference i.e. referring to individual in third person role” Levinson, 1983: 70. This calling function is considered simpler than the reference function since it applies only to other people or may be to animals that are treated like people and it is only appropriate when the person called is present. This shows that person deixis is about not only the usage of personal pronoun, but also the usage of vocatives. Vocatives are noun phrases that refer to the addressee Levinson, 1983: 71. Vocative is a noun identifying the person or animal, object, etc. addressed andor the determiners of that noun. For example, in the sentence, ‘I dont know, Tiara.’ The word ‘Tiara’ is a vocative expression referring to who is being addressed. This holds an opposing view to the sentence ‘I dont know Tiara,’ where Tiara is the direct object of the verb, ‘know’. In addressing someone directly, the name being used e.g., Tiara, Lidya, my sweetheart, you boys, my daughter should be separated from rest of the sentence by using a comma or commas.

b. Spatial Deixis

According to Yule 1996: 12, spatial deixis is clearly relevant to the concept of distance, where the relative location of people and things in being indicated. Spatial deixis is used to point to a location or the place where an entity is in the context, as in the demonstrative adverbs ‘there’ and ‘here’; and in the demonstrative adjective and pronouns ‘this’, ‘that’, ‘these’, and ‘those’ Cutting, 2002: 8. 11 Spatial deixis shows the idea of where the thing is located. For example, ‘here’, ‘this’, ‘those’, and ‘these’.

c. Temporal Deixis

According to Cutting 2002: 8, temporal deixis is used to point to a time. Furthermore, according to Yule 1996: 14, temporal deixis simply indicates the time when the utterance is spoken. In temporal deixis, we have some indicators like ‘now’, ‘then’, ‘yesterday’, ‘tomorrow’, ‘today’, ‘tonight’, ‘next week’, ‘last week’, and ‘this week’. For example, ‘Now you have to submit the assignment to me.’ The word ‘now is included as the temporal deixis of the sentence, since it represents the time when the utterance is spoken.

2. Reference and Referent

Reference in an utterance including the indexical expressions such as personal pronoun and the tense of verb Leech, 1983: 11. This means that a reference includes personal pronoun which includes person deixis and has something to do with the time the utterance takes. Thus, the finding of the reference of an utterance depends on the time, the speaker, the person who the speaker is speaking to the interlocutor, and the person whom the speaker is talking about. It is a context dependent aspect of utterance-meaning: it is a relation that holds between speakers more generally, locutionary agents and what they are talking about on particular occasions Lyons, 1995: 294. This shows that the reference depends on the context of the utterance, the speakers of the utterance and the topic of the utterance.