as to distinguish one ethnic group to the other and so that every ethnic group can recognize each other. Those objective markers will be explored further in the next
section. In addition to primordial theory, there is also instrumentalist theory
which believes that ethnic group persists for political and economic gain, and Barth’s situational theory which argues that ethnic identity of individuals is not
fixed but can be altered by manipulation of appropriate symbols Emberling, 1997. The most acknowledged theory in most recent anthropology after all seems
to be the situational theory. Zelinsky 2001 for one agrees that ethnic group is always undergoing constant change. Lindholm 2007 supports this view as noting
that cultural values can be learned and thus changeable. Furthermore Rampton 1996 in Milroy and Gordon 2003 also mentions that ethnic group boundaries
are flexible and permeable.
2. Ethnic Markers
In various definitions of ethnic groups, anthropologists often mention the characteristic of the sharing of unique set of cultural values and physical
characteristics. Derived from these parameters, objective ethnic markers are recognized as significant to the acknowledgement of an ethnic group, as Barth
1969 mentions that ascription is a critical feature of an ethnic group, i.e. to be having the membership which identifies itself and is identified by others.
According to Barth 1969, there are two orders of the cultural contents in ethnic dichotomies. The first is what he calls overt signals or signs which
people look for and exhibit to show identity, while the latter is the more directly
functional practices of cultural values including standards of morality and excellence. As the nature of overt signals which is more observable and thus
classifiable, they are usually elaborated into some more detailed categories as follows:
1. Linguistic features Language as ethnic marker means the mother tongue
shared by the ethnic group members. The nature of language as means of communication is important to preserve the sense of
peoplehood within the ethnic group and possibility for interethnic relationship, as it may also be used to cross between ethnic groups
Fought, 2006 with similar linguistic characteristics or through the pidgin language. Linguistic marker also includes the written
language or the writing system of the language. 2. Terminology and Naming
Terminology and naming system may actually be included in linguistic markers, but it can stand on its own for it is closer to the
cultural value in general. This marker may include the naming system of family bonds, names of people, names of places, names of
streets, names of tools, etc. 3. Art
Art markers may include paintings, songs, music, musical instruments, dance, and forms of literature such as poetry, prose,
folklore, etc.
4. Architecture Architecture in modern ethnic groups usually has adapted
to the latest technology or tends to follow the national identity, however many ethnic groups still retain the architectural
characteristics especially on their traditional houses, ceremonial building, public buildings, or their urban plan.
5. Products These markers can be the food and beverages, clothing,
ceremonial dresses, kitchen utensils, tools for working, and any other form of tools and utensils.
6. Customs Custom is one ethnic marker which is more practical
compared to the others and includes certain occasional tradition or ceremonies. It may also cover less obvious customs such as table
manner, working time, curfew, or other habitual daily activities. 7. Organization or community
Within an ethnic group there is at least an organization which governs the society. There can also be culture-related
community which can be based on common interest. 8. Religion and believe
Religion is closely related to the preservation and the bonding of an ethnic group. Even though this boundary may be
flexible as it is possible for more religion and believes to be
introduced to the ethnic group while still retaining its sense of belongingness, the initial religion is usually preserved and still
strongly influences the custom within the ethnic group. Religion is also quite the core of the culture itself as Geertz 1973: 126 regards
religion as a cultural system and says that it “… grounds the most specific requirements of human action in the most general contexts
of human existence.” 9. Geographical marker
Geographical marker generally represents the home where the ethnic group is residing. This is not always the case, though,
since these days it is not unusual to find any members of an ethnic group migrating to and even continue living in many different
places, while still claiming that they are from certain ethnic group. It is also not unusual for people of other ethnic groups to recognize
some immigrants with visible physical characteristics as members of certain ethnic group. However, it is still necessary to consider
geographical marker especially when it seen from the perspective of the marker itself, for example, Bali Island in Indonesia is seen to be
the home of the Balinese people of the ethnic group Bali and is associated with the distinctive characteristics of its ethnicity.
As for the physical characteristics, these markers may be regarded to be not as reliable considering the more powerful subjective parameters. However, in
the case of visible physical characteristics and the controversy surrounding them,
