9 In 3, the conversation is basically conducted in English and the speakers switch
their code into Italian. On the other hand, in 5, the sentence is basically in Italian and the speaker switched it to English in the middle of the sentence. The speaker
in 4 uses Italian and then switched to German at the end of the sentence.
2. Types of Code-switching
There are many types of code-switching. Each linguist has his or her own way to classify the code-switching based on its type. Here the researcher presents
the types of code-switching based on Hoffman, Wardhaugh and Romaine.
a. Hoffman 1991
Hoffman 1991: 114 states that, “The two basic types of code-switches are those
found across sentence boundaries inter-sentential and those occurring inside sentences intra-
sentential.” Here is an example of inter-sentential code-switching given by Calsamiglia and Tuson 1984: 115 as cited by Hoffman:
2 An adult Spanish-Catalan bilingual:
‘… y si dices “perdon” en castellano, se te vuelve la mujer y te dice:’ ‘… and
if you say “sorry” in Castilian Spanish, the lady turns to you and says:’
‘En catala’ ‘In Catalan’ Hoffman also presents another example of inter-sentential code-switching from
Silva-Corvalan 1989: 181: 3
An adult Spanish-English bilingual: ‘Tenia zapatos blancos, un poco, they were off-white, you know.’
Intra-sentential code-switching occurs when the switch occurs within a single sentence. Fallis, as cited by Hoffman presents an example of intra-
sentential code-switching: 4
A Spanish-English bilingual:
10 ‘I started going like this. Y luego decia and then he said, look at the
smoke coming out my fingers’ Another example is also provided by Hoffman, citing from Grosjean 1982:
5 A French-English bilingual:
‘Va chercher Marc go and fetch Marc and bribe him avec un chocolat chaud with a hot chocolate with cream on top
’
b. Wardhaugh 1992
Wardhaugh presents two types of code-switching, namely situational and metaphorical code-switching. When the language used changes according to the
situations in which the speakers find themselves, it is called situational code- switching. This type of code-switching does not involve any topic change. On the
other hand, when a change of topic requires a change in the languages used, metaphorical code-switching occurs. Although some topics may be discussed in
either code, the choice of code adds a distinct flavor to what is said about the topic since it encodes certain social values. Metaphorical code-switching also has an
affective dimension. It can be used to redefine the situation: formal to informal, official to personal, serious to humorous, and politeness to solidarity.
c. Romaine 1995
According to Poplack, as cited in Romaine 1995, there are three types of code-switching, namely tag-switching, inter-sentential code-switching and intra-
sentential code-switching. Tag-switching involves the insertion of a tag in one language into an utterance which is otherwise entirely in the other language
Romaine, 1995. Tags are subject to minimal syntactic restrictions. Therefore, they may be easily inserted at a number of points in a monolingual utterance
without violating syntactic rules. The speaker of the following utterance switches
