learners’ needs. It means that all the decisions in deciding the materials will be based on the learners’ needs. The result of ESP is a kind of materials that match directly
with the condition that they are going to encounter in their working field. Hutchinson and Waters 1987 divided ESP into two main types according to the reasons why the
learners require English for. They are English for Academic Purposes EAP and English for work or training EOPEVPVESL: English for Occupational
PurposesEnglish for Vocational PurposesVocational English as a Second Language. They propose the branch of English language teaching based on the
learners’ purpose as seen in Figure 2.1.
English Language Teaching
Fig
ure 2.1: The Branch of English Language Teaching Hutchinson and Waters, 1994
General English GE
English for Specific Purposes ESP
English for Occupational Purposes EOP
English for Academic
Purposes EAP
English for banking
English as LT 1 EMT
English as Foreign Language
English as L2 ESL
The writer should be aware of the branch of English language teaching before designing the materials. English for banking is included into the EFL, in which there
is very little opportunities to use the target language outside the classroom. Therefore, the context will be different from designing materials for ESL, in which the target
language is used for daily communication in society. There is also another thesis on designing English materials for banking staff.
It was made by Veronica Widi Handoyowati 2004. This previous thesis used Communicative Language Teaching approach, while this thesis focuses on using
Task Based Learning. Since the designed materials will be focusing on the speaking skill, it is also
important to know the theories related to the teaching of speaking.
2. Speaking
Speaking is the main skill that will be learned in this study. Therefore, it is important for the writer to know about speaking in depth.
a. Nature of Speaking
Speaking is one of the four basic skills, along with listening, reading and writing. Speaking and writing are classified as active or productive skills whereas
listening and reading are considered as passive or receptive skills. Nunan 2003 states that in learning a language, speaking can be considered as the hardest skill to be
learnt among all skills for two reasons. First, the person whom we are talking to is waiting for our response right then. Second, we cannot edit and revise what we wish
to say, as we can do in writing skill. The writer needs to know the characteristics of speaking in order to be able to select appropriate activities to improve speaking
ability.
b. Principles for Teaching Speaking
There are five principles for teaching speaking as stated by Nunan 2003, pp. 54-56: a be aware of the differences between second language and foreign
language learning contexts; b give learners practice with both fluency and accuracy; c provide opportunities for learners to talk by using group work or pair work, and
limiting teacher talk; d plan speaking tasks that involve negotiation for meaning; e design classroom activities that involve guidance and practice in both transactional
and interactional speaking. Having understood the principles for teaching speaking, the writer can now design suitable activities by taking the principles for teaching
speaking into consideration.
3. Task Based Learning
a. Definition of Task Based Learning
Task based learning is an approach which uses tasks as the core unit of planning and instruction in language teaching Richard and Rodgers, 2001. Task
based learning perceives language as a mean of making meaning, so it is taught best when it is used to transmit messages, not when explicitly taught for conscious
learning Krashen and Terrel, 1983. The main characteristic of task based learning lies in the experiential learning where the learner’s past experience becomes the
starting point in learning, while their personal experience when doing the tasks becomes the central point of learning Nunan, 2004.
In task based learning, tasks are central in immersing learners in a meaningful communication using the target language, which in consequence, promotes learning.
Nunan 1989 defines tasks as activities which can stand alone as fundamental units and which require comprehending, manipulating, or interacting in authentic language,
while the attention is principally paid to meanings rather than to forms. Tasks provide the necessary exposure and also opportunities of language use needed for acquiring
the target language because the tasks are normally done in pairs or in groups. Exposure happens when they listen to the teacher’s instruction, to their friends’
speaking, and also when they have to read handouts to complete the tasks. Learners are expected to make sense of the input received in exposure either consciously or
unconsciously. When learners notice the language features and internalize them in their language system, learning is promoted. Tasks will also encourage learners to
learn communicative competences like giving opinion, interrupting, and presenting their results to the whole class. Learners will acquire the language faster and more
efficiently when they have to communicate Willis, 1996. There are two kinds of syllabus design that are appropriate for task-based
materials according to Nunan 2004. The first one is theme-based syllabus, where the contents are organized into topics. Themes will provide context for doing the
tasks and learning the language in a meaningful way. The second one is task-based syllabus, where the contents are organized based on the task difficulty. Understanding
the principles and beliefs of task-based learning helps the writer to know how the ideal task based teaching-learning activities should be done.
b. Types of Tasks
There are two types of tasks: tasks according to the analysis of communicative language use and tasks according to the strategies behind them. Willis 1996, pp. 26-
28 classifies six types of tasks according to the analysis of communicative language use. They are:
1
Listing
Listing tasks tend to generate a lot of opportunities for language use, as learners explain their ideas. The processes involved are brainstorming and fact-
finding. The outcome would be the completed list, or possibly a draft mind map.
2 Ordering and Sorting
These tasks involve four main processes: sequencing items, actions or events in a logical or chronological order, ranking items according to personal values or
specified criteria, categorizing items in given groups or grouping them under given headings, and classifying items in different ways, where the categories themselves are
not given.
3 Comparing
Broadly, these tasks involve comparing information from two or more sources to identify common points andor differences. The processes involved are: matching
to identify specific points and relate them to each other, finding similarities and things in common, and finding differences.
4 Problem Solving
Problem-solving tasks make demands upon people’s intellectual and reasoning powers, and, though challenging, they are engaging and often satisfying to
solve. The processes and time scale will vary enormously depending on the type and complexity of the problem. These tasks pose a problem to solve for the learners. It
can be in the form of puzzles, real-life problems, fact-finding and investigation, or case study.
5 Sharing Personal Experiences
These tasks encourage learners to talk more freely about themselves and share their experiences with others. The resulting interaction is closer to casual social
conversation in that it is not as directly goal-oriented as in other tasks. For that reason, these open tasks may be more difficult to get going in the classroom.
6 Creative Tasks
These are often called projects and involve pairs or groups of learners in some kind of freer creative work. They also tend to have more stages than other tasks, and
can involve combinations of task types. Therefore, this kind of task will require longer time to finish compared with other tasks. Organisational skills and team-work
are important in getting the task done. 14
Richard and Rodgers 2001 also classify tasks according to the analysis of communicative language use into these categories:
1 Jigsaw task
In this task, learners have to combine different pieces of information in order to make them a whole, such as arranging three different parts of a story into a good
order.
2 Information-gap task
This task requires learners to perform the negotiation of meaning and find out the other learner’s information to complete the task. Therefore, there should be at
least two learners having different but complementary set of information.
3 Problem-solving task
This task is the same kind of task with the problem-solving task proposed by Willis 1996.
4 Decision-making task
In this task, the learners have to discuss a problem which has some possible solutions and negotiate to decide which will be the best solution.
5 Opinion-exchange task
Learners will be engaged in a discussion where they have to exchange their ideas. There is no fixed outcome in this kind of task.
According to the strategies behind the tasks, Nunan 2004, p. 59 classifies tasks into five categories: cognitive, interpersonal, linguistic, affective and creative
tasks. Each of them is divided again into several kinds of task. The classification proposed by Nunan is seen in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Nunan’s Task Classification Nunan, 2004: 59
Cognitive Tasks
• Classifying
Putting similar things together in groups •
Predicting Predicting what is to come in the learning process
• Inducing
Looking for patterns and regularities •
Taking notes Writing down key information in own words
• Concept mapping
Showing the main idea of a text in the form of a map •
Inferencing Using what you know to learn something
• Discriminating
Distinguishing main ideas from supporting ideas •
Diagramming Using information from a text to label diagram
Interpersonal Tasks
• Co-operating
Sharing ideas and learning with other students •
Role playing Pretending to be someone else and act like them
Linguistic Tasks
• Conversational patterns
Using expressions to start and maintain conversation •
Practicing Doing controlled exercise to improve skills
• Using context
Using context to guess unknown words or concepts •
Summarizing Selecting and presenting major points in a summary
• Selective listening
Listening to key information without knowing all •
Skimming Reading quickly to get a general idea of a text
Affective Tasks
• Personalizing
Sharing own feelings or opinions about something •
Self-evaluating Thinking on own learning performance and rate it
• Reflecting
Thinking about ways you learn best
Creative Task
• Brainstorming
Thinking as many new words or ideas as one can 16
c. Framework of Task Based Learning
The framework consists of three phases: pre-task, task cycle and language focus. The components within each phase of the framework provide a naturally
flowing sequence, each one preparing the ground for the next. There are many ways in which the components within the framework can be weighted differently and
adapted to suit learners’ needs.
1 Pre Task Phase
Pre-task phase introduces the class to the learning topic. Here, topic-related words and phrases are activated. Teacher should help learners recall and activate
words and phrases that will be useful both during the task and outside the classroom. Introduce words and phrases that they are unlikely to know. This phase also
facilitates learners to explore and be familiar with the topic language by doing activities such as classifying words and phrases, matching, brainstorming or mind
mapping. The point of this phase is to boost students’ confidence in handling the task, and give them something to fall back on.
Teachers should also ensure that all learners understand what the task involves, what its’ goals are and what outcomes are required. Instruction-giving is a
truly communicative use of the target language. It provides valuable exposure and a chance for learners to grapple with meaning and should be considered another
learning opportunity. 17
2 Task Cycle Phase
This is where the learners start working in small groups or in pairs to achieve the goals of the task. Teachers should encourage learners to work independently and
to communicate on their own to achieve the set goals by keeping minimum interference on learners’ work. Therefore, there is often little concern for grammatical
accuracy. After they have finished, teachers should ask them to prepare an oral or a
written report on how they solved the task as well as the result of the task. Learners will psychologically feel encouraged to do their best when they know that they have
to report their work to the class. It will make learners plan their reports effectively and maximize their learning opportunities. Therefore, they will try to deliver their
work correctly and orderly, which will be the process that drives their language development forward.
After that, the teacher should ask some groups or all of them if possible, to report their task to the class. This will give learners a natural stimulus to upgrade and
improve their language. It encourages them to think about form as well as meaning; accuracy as well as fluency and to use their prestige version of the target language. It
allows other students to hear or read what they have done, which provides useful exposure. In this phase, the teacher may provide brief feedback on students’
presentation. It is important that learners’ performance must not be devaluated. Teachers should emphasize their good points. Such positive reactions increase
students’ motivation and self esteem and encourage them to do better next time. 18
3 Language Focus Phase
This phase allows a closer study of some of the specific features such as unfamiliar words, structures, or pronunciation that naturally occur in the task cycle.
By this point, the learners will have already worked with the language and processed it for meaning, so they are ready to focus on the specific language forms that carry
that meaning. Thus, the study of this form is clearly contextualized through the task itself. After reviewing the features, learners then practice what has been discussed
during the language analysis activities to improve their language form. This final phase, which includes analysis and practice components, fulfils the fourth desirable
extra condition for learning. The elements of task based learning are illustrated in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2: Willis’s Task-based Learning Framework Willis, 1996: 38 Pre-task
Introduction to topic and task
Teacher explores the topic with the class, highlights useful words and phrases, helps students understand task instructions and prepare. Students may hear a
recording of others doing a similar task
Task
Students do the task, in pairs or small groups. Teacher monitors
from a distance
Task Cycle
Planning
Students prepare to report to the whole class orally or in writing how they
did the task, what they decided or discovered
Report
Some groups present their reports to the class, or exchange written
reports, and compare the result
Analysis
Students examine and discuss specific features of the text or transcript of the
recording
Practice
Teacher conducts practice of new words, phrases and patterns occurring
in the data, either during or after the analysis
Language Focus
The writer can determine the sequence of learning activities after understanding the stages in task based learning framework. Therefore, the materials
for each meeting will consist of pre-task, task-cycle, and language focus phase.
d. Learner’s Roles in Task Based Learning
Learner’s roles are very important in task based learning because the activities in the classroom emphasize on learner’s active involvement. Willis 1996 describes
the roles of learners as follows:
1 Learners as active language users
When the learners do the tasks, they have the opportunities to communicate and to experiment with the language in order to complete the tasks. Therefore, they
have to find a way to overcome their linguistic resource before conveying their thoughts. That would lead them to learn the skills of restating, paraphrasing, using
gestures, guessing from linguistic and contextual use, asking for clarification, as well as consulting with other learners Willis, 1996.
2 Learners as language learners
Besides paying attention to the message of a task, the learners should also notice the form in which the message is delivered. The grammatical rules can be
deduced from the interaction that they observe in the task cycle phase. Learners can also deduce them by consulting it with the teacher in the language focus phase.
Therefore, learners take full responsibility of their own learning progress. 20
3 Learners as group participants
When doing the tasks, learners are often required to work in groups, in which they have to cooperate with other learners. Eventually, those tasks will improve
learners’ communication skills, such as negotiating, respecting others’ opinion, and improving their thinking skills Willis, 1996. Knowing learners’ roles in TBL will
help the writer to select the learning activities appropriate for TBL, in which the learners function as the language users, language learners and group participants.
e. Teacher’s Roles in Task Based Learning
Willis 1996 describes the roles of the teacher as follows:
1 Teacher as a facilitator
The teacher mainly functions as a facilitator because task based learning is a learner-centred approach. The teacher sets up tasks, gives the instruction to do them,
and makes sure that learners do the task using the target language and learn something from the activities.
2 Teacher as a monitor
This will take place in the task-cycle phase. The teacher should keep minimum interference with working learners and stop teaching. They should observe
and encourage the learners from a slight distance, as well as reminding them to use the target language. If the teacher stands too close with the learners, they tend to ask
the teacher for words they do not know rather than to express it in another way. 21
3 Teacher as a language advisor
In the planning stage, the teacher should help the learners find phrases that can precisely convey what they mean. Teachers can suggest the learners to look up
the definition of unfamiliar words in the dictionary, encourage the other members of the group to edit the report draft together, and give positive comments on their good
points as well as creative use of the language.
4 Teacher as a chairperson
Teacher’s role as a chairperson takes place in the report stage. Teachers have to introduce the presentation, set a purpose for listening, nominate which group
speaks next, and make a summary at the end. Teachers should not interrupt or correct learners during their presentation because it can be discouraging. Teachers who are
inexperienced with task based learning need to be well-informed of how to act and respond to learners’ errors when implementing the materials.
4. Journals in Language Teaching and Learning
In task based learning, the success of learning lies heavily on the learners. This may cause some difficulties for the learners who do not have good learning
strategies. It will also be difficult for the teachers to monitor the learning progress of those learners. This may lead to a condition where the learners fail to obtain the sense
of achievement, and in turn will make learning as a demotivating experience for them. One of the possible solutions is to use a learning journal.
Brown 2004 defined a journal as a record of one’s thoughts, feelings, reactions, assessments, ideas or progress toward goals, which is usually written with
little attention to structure, form, or correctness. Writing a journal aims to record events and ideas for later reflection, which will help learners trigger insights about
learning. Writing a journal can also facilitate learners to become more reflective, in which they can monitor their own learning progress and take control of their own
learning. By writing journals, the learners can express their thoughts freely, without
fearing being judged by anyone. Teachers should provide reflective questions which can encourage them to think deeper, especially about things related to their learning
difficulties. Journals can help learners realize the importance of setting their own goals, as well as monitor their own achievements and learning difficulties Brown,
2004. Watson 1996 stated that journals are also beneficial for the teachers because
it enables teachers to be better acquainted with the learners and also inform about the learners’ progress and difficulties. Through journals, teachers will be able to
investigate the affective states which hinder the learners’ learning progress such as anxiety, experience from past failure, lack of confidence, or tendency to withdraw
from challenges. Journals can also provide information about the learners’ needs and wants, from which we can draw suggestions from the learners on ways to improve the
teaching learning process. Most importantly, writing journals will help learners practice and improve their writing skills Brown, 2004.
According to Brown 2004, there are some principles that the teacher must consider before applying it. They are:
a. Introduce learners to the concept of journal writing since not all learners are
familiar with it. b.
State the objectives of the journal. c.
Give guidelines on what kinds of topics to include. d.
Show the example of a journal. e.
Encourage learners to write about their success as well as their difficulties. Similarly, encourage them to write about classroom activities they found
useful, effective, and fun as well as those that seem confusing, useless, boring or frustrating.
f. Designate appropriate time frames and schedules for review.
g. Provide optimal feedback in your responses.
h. Avoid the use of evaluative or judgmental comments to ensure learners’
confidence and honesty.
5. Material Adaptation
a. Definition
According to Tomlinson and Masuhara 2004, materials adaptation includes adjusting or changing the existing materials into the suitable one depend on the need
of the learners, students, and the situation. 24
b. Principles of Materials Adaptation
