Contextual Meaning Temporal: when, while, during, since 4.3 Deictic: this, that, former, latter, the, a

32 verbs before are indeterminate as to the vertical horizontal distinction. One may walk up, down, or on the level, and the same is true of run, hop, skip, crawl, jump, swim, fly, roll, and slide although the gradient in swim is normally horizontal or nearly so, and roll and slide more often than not refer to downward movement. However, fall and sink tend to be related to downward movement. The meanings of fall and sink also contrast with most of the other meanings in being related primarily to the force of gravity rather than involving internal energy. In contrast with the downward movement in fall and sink, climb implies upward movement, i.e. without some seman tic “corrective”, e.g. down or through, climb has a diagnostic component of upward movement. For instance, when one says She climbed the stairs, it implies the upward movement. The downward movement must usually be specifically marked, e.g. He climbed down the stairs. The analysis can be presented in table 2.5.

2.1.7. Contextual Meaning

In linguistics, context carries tremendous importance in disambiguation of meanings as well as in understanding the actual meaning of words. Therefore, understanding the context becomes an important task in almost all areas of linguistics since context triggers variation of meaning and supplies valuable information to understand why and how a particular word varies in meaning when used in a piece of text. According to Dash 2008, the term context refers to an immediate linguistic environment rarely detached or isolated in which a particular word occurs. Since it is not always explicit, it may be hidden within the neighboring members of a word used in a piece of text. 33 Table 2.5: Contrastive analysis of verbs with extended semantic features Nida, 1975: 79-80 RUN WALK HOP SKIP JUMP DANCE CRAWL ROLL SLIDE CLIMB SINK FALL FLY SWIM Environment surfaces supporting + + + + + + + + + +     non-supporting           +    between surfaces on different levels            +   air             +  water              + Source of energy animate being + + + + + + +   +   + + animate being andor gravity        + +      gravity           + +   Use of limbs as means of propulsion All four limbs       +       + All the limbs which are normally in contact with the supporting surface, with the optional addition of the forelimbs for bipeds in climbing + + + + +     +     The forelimbs             +  Points of contact with a surface The extremities of the limbs + + + + + + +   +     Any point or portion         +   +   A continuous series of points        +       Nature of contact with the surface No contact during movement     +       +   Intermittent contact +  + +  +         Continuous contact By one and then another limb or set of limbs  +    + +        By the same or contiguous portion        + +      34 RUN WALK HOP SKIP JUMP DANCE CRAWL ROLL SLIDE CLIMB SINK FALL FLY SWIM Order of repeated contact between limbs and surface Alternating + +     +   +     Variable but rhythmic      +         1 –1–1–1 or 2–2–2–2 or continuous series of short jumps   +            1 –1–2–2–1–1–2–2    +           Directional orientation Indeterminant + + + + + + + + +    + + Down           + +   Up          +     35 Further, if we cannot extract the information relevant to the meaning of a word from its immediate linguistic environment, we need to take into account the topic of discussion as a sphere of necessary information. Miller and Leacock 2000 have classified context into two types, i.e. local context, and topical context. The local context refers to one or two words immediately before and after the key word under investigation, and the topical context refers to the topic of the text where the key word has been used. According to them, reference to the two contexts is more of less sufficient in understanding the actual contextual meaning of the key word used in a text. However, Dash argued that the two contexts mentioned above are not enough for understanding the intended meaning of a word. It is because these contexts often fail to provide the necessary information required for the purpose. According to Dash, in certain readings, information acquired from the local context and the topical context may be sufficient, but these are not enough for understanding all possible meaning variations of a word. To acquire more information Dash, therefore, argued to classify context taking these two types into his consideration into four broad types Dash 2005a: local context, sentential context, topical context, and global context. The local context refers to the immediate environment of the key word in a sentence where it has occurred, encompassing its immediately preceding and succeeding words. Conceptually, the immediately preceding i.e., left word LW1, the key word KW, and the immediately succeeding i.e., right word RW1 = LW1 + KW + RW1 constitute a lexical block, where the key word is the main member while the LW1 and the RW1 are supporting members. The sentential context refers to 36 a sentence where the key word has occurred. It supplies syntactic information to know if the key word has any explicit or implicit syntactic relation with the other words used in the sentence. In these cases, the sentential context allows us to explore if there is any variation of meaning of the key word due to its relation with the other members located far away. The topical context refers to the topic of discussion and focuses on the content of a piece of text. Quite often, it is found that the actual meaning of the key word depends heavily on the topic which has a strong role to alter etymological meaning of the key word. For example, in English, based on the variation of topic the word shot refers to „firing‟, „drinking‟, „hitting a ball by bat‟, „kicking a ball‟, „putting a ball in the net‟, „distance between a player and the hole‟, „taking a snap‟, „giving an injection‟, or „making love‟, etc. Dash 2004. In the global context, words are not seen as isolated entities. They are interlinked with other words as well as with the extralinguistic reality Verschueren, 1981: 337. So does the meanings of words. The meaning of the key word is not only related to the meanings of other words occurring within local context, sentential context, and topical context, but also to extralinguistic reality surrounding the linguistic acts undertaken by language users. The Verb, for instance, usually evoke a scene of action constituting an agent, a patient, an item, a place, and a time, all coordinated in a particular discourse Fillmore, 1977: 82. This signifies that understanding the meaning of a verb form under investigation we need to consider of all the elements in a cognitive interface to realize its denotative, connotative and figurative meaning. As we stated before, language is only one of the systems of signs used by human beings to communicate with each other. We can also use symbols, for 37 example color to convey certain meaning. The color of red can be used to indicate danger, blood or brave in Indonesian flag. A certain symbol can carry lots of meanings. Likewise, a single word can also carry a lot of meanings. Let us take an example from the word rat. Generally, we might think that rat is a kind of animal, any of various long-tailed rodents similar to but larger than a mouse. But in a sentence I smell a rat, the word rat here does not refer to a certain animal, but of suspecting that something wrong is being done. Thus, in order to get the precise meaning from a certain word, we need to put the word into its context in a sentence. This is what we refer to contextual meaning analysis.

2.2 Review of Related Study