I am the type of person who is easily offended
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
37
Two question items of Emotional Stability dimension, which the fifth factorcomponent was rejected because it had insufficient loading factor value. Two
items of question that were expected to help forming these dimensions did not meet the requirements of desired loading factor value, namely question: I am always able to
control my feelings and I am the type of person who is easily offended.
Two items of this question essentially measures a person’s ability and inability to control the
feelings. The nature based on respondents’ response in this research are not included in Emotional Stability dimension, while conceptually assumed be a major item for this
dimension. A possible explanation is given for this result is that the respondents felt very hesitant to identify themselves on the side of feeling control or not control the
feelings. The respondents generally felt that they were in some situations or for some things can control their feelings well, but for some others were not.
CONCLUSION
This research concluded that the conceptualization of FFM which consist of five main dimensions of personality, has met the requirements of construct validity. The test
results of factor analysis produced five dimension of personality, in a row based on the percentage of data variance which was capable explained: conscientiousness 18
items, extraversion-introversion 18 items, agreeableness 12 items, openness to experience 14 items, and emotional stability 12 items. In addition, this five
dimensions of FFM also have good level of reliability. This research provides the strong support for the conceptualization of the dimensions
of FFM, so that the items of measurement can be considered more workable to be used in practical purposes such as employee selection, training and development,
promotion, and other practices of Human Resources Management HRM. The practitioner of organizations, particularly HRM practitioners are advised to use the
conceptualization and measurements that have been empirically proven to improve the fit among employees with jobprofession that they run.
Future research also needs to clarify the influence of the FFM dimension on the performance of employees, especially in Indonesia. Therefore, should be conducted a
research involving respondents from various professions to infer between the personality dimension score with jobprofession that they run.
REFERENCES
Burke, L. A., Witt, L. A. 2004. Personality and High-Maintenance Employee Behavior. Journal of Business and Psychology, 18 3: 349-363
Costa, P. T., McCrae, R. R. 1992. The NEO-PI Personality Inventory, Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
Elanain, H. M. A. 2007. The Five-Factor Model of Personality and Organizational Citizenship Behavior in United Arab Emirates. S.A.M. Advanced Management
Journal,
72 3: 47-57
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
38
Ferguson, E. 2004. Conscientiousness, emotional stability, perceived control and the frequency, recency, rate and years of blood donor behavior. British Journal of Health
Psychology; 9: 293-314
Foldes, H. J., Duehr, E. E., Ones, D. S. 2008. Group differences in personality: meta-analyses comparing five U.S. racial groups. Personnel Psychology; 61 3: 579-
616 Friedman, M., Rosenman, R. H. 1974. Type A behavior and your heart. New York.
Knopf. Furnham, A., Petrides, K. V., Tsaosis, I., Pappas, K., Garrod, D. 2005. A Cross-
Cultural Investigation into the relationships between personality traits and work values. The Journal of Psychology; 139 1: 5-32
Gill, C. M., Hodgkinson, G. P. 2007. Development and Validation of the five-factor model questionnaire FFMQ: an adjectival-based personality inventory for use in
accupational settings. Personnel Psychology, 60 3: 731-766. Greenberg, J., and Baron, R.A. 2000. Behavior in Organization: Understanding and
Managing the Human Side of Work
. Prentice Hall International, New Jersey Guthrie, J. P., Ash, R. A., Bandapudi, P. 1995. Additional validity evidence for a
measure of morningness. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78: 184-193. Hair, Jr. J. F, Aderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L., Black, W. C. 1998. Multivariate Data
Analysis
. Prentice-Hall International, Inc. United States Isen, A. M., Baron, R. A. 1992. Positive affect as a factor in organizational
behavior. In B. M. Staw L. L. Cummings, eds. Research in organizational behavior vol. 13: 1-54. Greenwich, CT. JAI Press.
Judge, T. A., Erez, A. 2007. Interaction and intersection: the constellation of emotional stability and extraversion in predicting performance. Personnel
Psychology;
60 3: 573-596 Judge, T. A., Martocchio, J. J., Thoresn, C. J. 1998. Five-factor model of
personality and employee absence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82: 745-755. Juhasz, G., Chase, D., Pegg, E., Downey, D., Toth, Z. G., Stones, K., Platt, H., Mekli,
K., Payton, A., Anderson, I. M., Deakin, J. F. W. 2009. CNRI gene is associated with high neuroticism and agreeableness and interacts with recent negative life events
to predict current depressive symptoms. Neuropsychopharmacology, 34: 2019-2027. Marcus, D., Lee, K., Ashton, M. C. 2007. Personality dimensions explaining
relationships between integrity test and counterproductive behavior: Big Five, or one in addition? Personnel Psychology; 60: 1-34.
Mount, K., Barrick, M. R., Scullen, S. M., Rounds, J. 2005. Higher-order
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
39
dimensions of the big five personality and the big six vocational interest type. Personnel Psychology;
58 2 447-478 Robbins, S. P., Judge, T. A. 2009. Organizational Behavior. Pearson Education,
Inc. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. Salekin, R. T., Leistico, A. R., Trobst, K. K., Schrum, C. L., Lochman, J. E. 2005.
Adolescent Psychopathy and Personality Theory-the Interpersonal Circumplex: Expanding Evidence of a Nomological Net. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology,
33 4: 445
–460 Salgado, J. F. 1997. The five-factor model of personality and job performance in the
European community. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82: 30-43. Saucier, G. Ostedorf, F. 1999. Hierarchical subcomponents of the Big Five
personality factors: A cross-language replication. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
76 4: 613-627. Sekaran, U. 2000. Research Methods for Business: A Skill-Building Approach. John
Willey Sons, Inc. United Staed of America Weaven, S., Grace, D., Manning, M. 2009. Franchisee personality An examination in
the context of franchise unit density and service classification. European Journal of Marketing
, 4312: 90-109
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
40
The Effects of Shopping Lifestyle, Fashion Involvement, and Self Confidence on Impulse Buying Behavior on the
Generation Y Banjarmasin
ARIEF BUDIMAN, PhD ENJELA IMANIAR Faculty of Economics Business
LambungMangkurat University Jl. Brigjend H. Hasan Basry Banjarmasin 70123, Indonesia
abudimanunlam.ac.id angela_imaniarymail.com
Abstract This study aims to analyse and investigate the influence of shopping lifestyle, fashion
involvement, and self confidence towards impulse buying behavior on the Generation Y. Using online questionnaires the data were collected. The number of respondents who
identified as samples in this study was a hundred fashion product consumers that categorized as Generation Y. The SmartPLS was employed to test the hypotheses. The results show that
shopping lifestyle and self confidence significantly and positively related to fashion involvement. Furthermore, shopping lifestyle significantly and positively related to impulse
buying behavior. While fashion involvement and self confidence had no significant affect to impulse buying behavior on the Generation Y.
Keywords: Shopping Lifestyle, Fashion Involvement, Self Confidence, Impulse Buying
Behavior, Generation Y
Introduction
In the marketing literature it is well known that there is an existence of Generation cohort which is play an important role in marketing science because a generation
describes a group of individuals that born in a particular year group Gilboa, Fabio, Marinacci, Schmeidler, 2010. Experience in different generation, affect them to
think and act, and lead to different attitudes from each group generation Strauss Howe, 1991.
Marteney 2010 suggests that human generation is divided into six categories. The first generation is the Greatest Generation those who were born in1901 to 1924 world
war II . The second generation is the Silent Generation those who were born in 1925
to 1942. The third generation is the Baby Boomers those who were born in 1943 to 1960. The fourth generation is Generation X those who were born in 1961 to 1981. The
fifth generation is Generation Y those who were born in 1982 to 1994, and the sixth generation is Generation Z those born in 1995to 2010 Merdina, 2012. Consumer of
Generation Y represents a significant percentage of population and recognized as an important market segment and shows the difference with previous generations in
shopping lifestyle Bakwell Mitchel, 2003.
The objective of this study is to analyse and investigate the influence of shopping lifestyle, fashion involvement, and self confidence towards impulse buying behavior on
the Generation Y. Empirical research on this domain has to-date largely focused on western consumers and little evidence is available from Asian countries, particulalrly
Indonesia. This study contributes to the consumer behaviour area by examining the relationship of those variables to Generation Y in Indonesia.
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
41
LITERATURE REVIEW
Generation Y Generation Y are people who were born from 1982 to 1994 Merdina, 2012.
Consumer of Generation Y represents a significant percentage of population and recognized as an important market segment and shows the difference with previous generations in
shopping lifestyle Bakwell Mitchel, 2003.
Don Tapscott, Grown Up Digital author 2009, mentions that Generation Y or millennial are net generation who have characteristics as follows: loved freedom,
customization, scrutiny, integrity, loved collaboration, loved entertainment, fast, and loved innovation. More over, Generation Y prefers to choose a product that is known through the
information they got from television or internet, and then they will decided to buy the product or not.
Shopping Lifestyle
Shopping lifestyle is defined as behaviors exhibited by the buyer which associated with a responses and personal opinion about purchasing a product Cobb Hoyer, 1986.
Shopping lifestyle is a shopper style that occurs specifically gave a pressure on shopping lifestyle which includes shopping activities, interests and opinions, and reflection as a
complex social activity, recreation, and economic phenomena. Basically shopping lifestyle understood as a social phenomenon that is done by consumers as a form of recreation and
economic activity Visser Preez, 2001. Fashion Involvement
Fashion involvement is a behavior refers to the interest of attention with category of fashion products such as clothes. Fashion involvement used primarily to predict the
variables of behavior which is related to products such as clothes, purchasing behavior and consumer characteristics Browne Kaldenberg, 1997.
O’Cass 2004 found that fashion involvement on clothes are closely related to personal characteristics women and young
people, and knowledge of fashion which is turn affect consumer confidence in making purchasing decisions.
Self Confidence
Self confidence defined as a feeling of containing the power, the ability and skills to perform something which is based on the confidence to succeed Bandura, 1977. Self
confidence begins from own self determination, to do everything we want and need in life. Self confidence starts from faith in self, so that we are able to face the challenges of life and
to do something about it Angelis, 2003:10. Impulse Buying Behavior
Impulse buying behavior defined as a different purchasing behavior with purchase plan before going to the store Dell, Roger, Coney, 2001. Impulse buying behavior is a
tendency of consumers to make spontaneous purchases, not reflected, in a rush, and encouraged by motional psychological aspects of a product and tempted by the persuasion of
marketers Stern, 1962.
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
42
Conceptual Framework
In an attempt to describe the relationship between the variables in this study, can be
explained through the frame work scheme as follows:
FIGURE1. Conceptual Framework Source: Developed for research by the authors
Hypotheses
Shopping lifestyle become one of the most favorable lifestyle, to full this lifestyle people are willing to sacrifice something to achieve it and it is mostly occurs on fashion
oriented-products. Frings 2007 found that the consumer motif to buy fashion product are various. Like based on to look like fashionable, attractive, to impress others, be acceptable by
friends, peer group, or colleagues, or to full psychological the needs. Thus,
H1: shopping lifestyle will have a significant positive effect on fashion involvement on the Generation Y in Banjarmasin
Most people think shopping as fun social activities, so shopping lifestyle is chosen as a popular way to spend their leisure time. People love to look for new and interested thing that
is offered in the market, shopping just for fun, people have a desire to innovative products, and the benefits that provided by those products then people tend to do impulse buying
behavior. Impulse buying behavior usually occurs when consumers feel a strong motivation then turned into a desire to purchase goods or services. Cobb Hoyer 1986 found that
shopping lifestyle maybe related to impulse buying behavior. Thus,
H2: Shopping lifestyle will have a significant positive effect on impulse buying behavior on the Generation Y in Banjarmasin
Fashion involvement refers to a pers on’s style of the way they dressed by an interest
in one’s appearance. The awareness of fashion identified as an important dimension from someone lifestyle that influence buying behavior and consumer behavior. Fairhurst Gentry
1984 found that there is a positive relationship between fashion involvement and impulse buying behavior. Thus,
H3: Fashion involvement will have a significant effect on impulse buying behavior on the Generation Y in Banjarmasin
Self confidence has an important means of recognition of their existence in social life and community. Swastha Handoko 1987 found that everyone has a personality and one of
them is self confidence, and it is effect a different thought about some product. It occurs on the way to chose product, the color of clothes, and motif on clothes. Thus,
H4: Self confidence will have a significant effect on fashion involvement on the Generation Y in Banjarmasin
Impulse Buying Behavior on
Generation Y Y Fashion Involvement X
Ї
Self Confidence X Ј
Shopping Lifestyle X І
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
43
Impulse buying behavior often occurs on certain products that quite attractive to consumers. Like fashion product or clothes, because clothes is not just serve as body protector
but clothes can also be used as a means of increasing self confidence, prestige and a persons mood. Rook Fisher 1995 found that impulse buying behavior usually occurs when
consumer feels strong motivation in confidence that come to be a desire to buy the product.
Furthermore, they found that someone’s good mood is more conducive to do impulse buying. Thus,
H5: Self confidence will have a significant effect on impulse buying behavior on the Generation Y in Banjarmasin.
METHODOLOGY
In this study, the explanatory method used to test the influence of shopping lifestyle, fashion involvement, and self confidence towards impulse buying behavior on Generation Y.
The samping method that used in this study was convenience sampling procedure with 100 respondents that filled up the questionnaire on line. The invitation to particiapte on this study
was sent through email, twitter, and other social media. All measures employed on this study were adapted from previous research that was similar on this study.
Data Analysis Techniques Structural Equation Model SEM with SMART PLS was used to test the hyphoteses.
PLS is a powerful method of analysis Wold, 1985 in Ghozali, 2008 because it is not based on many assumptions. For example, the data must be normally distributed, samples should not
be large. It can be used to confirm the theory, PLS also can be used to explain the relationship between latent variables. PLS can as well as analyzing constructs formed with reflective and
formative indicators. It cannot be done by SEM based covariance because it will be an unidentified model.
EMPIRICAL RESULTS
The data analysis in this study using PLS with program Smart PLS 2.0 and the
following results:
FIGURE 2. Structural Model
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
44
TABLE 2. Partial Least Square results Predicted
Variable Predictor
Variable Hyp
Path Weight Variance
due to path
R
2
Critical Ratio
Fashion Involvement
Shopping Lifestyle
H1 0.51
0.29 0.36
13.96
+
Impulse Buying
Behavior H2
0.70 0.48
21.81
+
Impulse Buying
Behavior Fashion
Involvement H3
-0.00 0.00
+
Fashion Involvement
Self Confidence H4
0.21 0.07
4.11
+
Impulse Buying
Behavior H5
-0.05 0.007
0.48 1.03
+
exceeds minimum acceptable level 0.015 exceeds minimum acceptable level 1.96
. All the constructs in this study have average variance explained AVE exceeded
0.50. Thus, the measures exhibited satisfactory convergent validity. More over, the composite reliability
of the constructs were between 0.82 – 0.90. Hypotheses were tested using PLS
based on the value of R
2
, average variance extracted AVE, regression weights and bootstrap critical ratios t-values and path variance. Table 2 shows that the cut-off point for the path
coefficient is 0.015 15 of the variance and the bootstrap critical ratios for the path estimates should be greater than 1.96 as recommended by Ghozali 2008. Based on these
results, the hypotheses 1, 2, and 4 were accepted and the hypotheses 3 and 5 were rejected. CONCLUSIONS
Implications shopping lifestyle to fashion involvement
Based on the results of statistical calculations, it can be concluded that the construct shopping lifestyle significantly effected on the construct of fashion involvement. It can be
seen from the value of T-statistic greater than1.96, which is equal to 13,96. Thus, hypothesis one H1 in this study were accepted
. This suggests that a person who has a high shopping lifestyle tend to have a high fashion anyway. This phenomenon can occur because the
suspected respondent in this case Generation Y tend liked to shop and spend their money to make purchases on fashion-oriented goods.
To stimulate consumer ’s shopping lifestyle on fashion product, the marketer can
present products with the latest fashion products. Marketers can make a team to look for new ideas in create a trend, connections are connected and integrated with suppliers to share
information on the products that will be sold as a fashion trend with good quality, and etc. Implications lifestyle shopping on impulse buying behavior
Based on the results of statistical calculations, it can be concluded that the construct shopping lifestyle significantly effect on construct impulse buying behavior. It can be seen
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
45
from the value of T-statistic greater than1.96, which is equal to 21,81. Thus, hypothesis two H2 in this study were accepted.
This suggests that a person who has a shopping lifestyle relatively high tend to spend more time in shopping centers and willing to make unplanned
purchases than those who are not fond of shopping. This phenomenon can occur because the alleged activities of shopping for Generation Y, is no longer about fashion products to meet
the needs, but rather to satisfy the pleasure and as a symbol of a particular image. The desire to shop is often encouraged them to buy goods that really are not needed and only based on
interest in those goods through patterns and motif.
To stimulate consumer ’s shopping lifestyle in unplanned purchases on fashion
products, the marketer can do it by modify the display at their store. Display is one form of business marketers to create a stimulus for shopping. The purpose of the display is to
highlight the fashion trend or demonstrate how products should be used. The way to do that is to introduce color trends of the season by combine the products with a specific theme, put a
writing special price or special offer in the store, and decorate the store which made it more interesting and dramatic as possible in order to represent the image of store and stuff in it.
Implications of self confidence to fashion involvement
Based on the results of statistical analysis, it can be concluded that the self confidence significantly effect on fashion involvement construct. It can be seen from the value of T-
statistic greater than1.96, which is equal to 4,11. Thus, hypothesis four H4 in this study were accepted.
It shows that the higher a persons self confidence, the higher involvement of knowledge about fashion and fashion it self. This phenomenon can occur because the alleged
involvement of the media television, internet, magazines, aand others which affects the way they dressed and a tendency to find out things in trend. Thus, in choosing fashion products,
they tend to be influenced by self-esteem and subjective knowledge on products of fashion which they got from the media around them.
To stimulate consumer ’s self confidence in product fashion, the marketers can do this
by providing comprehensive information and details about the latest fashion products. The way to do that is doing intensive sales promotion through advertising and publishing product
catalogs to increase awareness of fashion products, especially on a product that in trend. With the promotion is expected to make consumers become more aware of the importance of
fashion and more confident in their clothes.
References
Angelis, B. D. 2003. Confidence: Finding it and Living it. Hay House Inc. Bakwell, C., Mitchel, V.-W. 2003. Generation Y female consumer decision making style.
International Journal of Retail and Distribution Management , 95-106.
Bandura, A. 1977. Social Learning Theory. New York: General Learning Press. Browne, B. A., Kaldenberg, D. O. 1997. Conceptualizing self-monitoring: links to
materialism and product involvement. Journal of Consumer Marketing , 31-44. Cobb, C. J., Hoyer, W. D. 1986. Planned Versus Impulse Purhase Behavior. Journal of
Retailing , 384-409.
Dell, H., Roger, J. B., Coney, K. 2001. Consumer Behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
Djarwanto, P., Pangestu, S. 2001. Statistik Induktif. Yogyakarta: BPFE. Fairhurst, A. G., Gentry, J. 1984. Fashion Involvement: An Instrument validation
procedure. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal , 10-14.
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
46
Ferdinand, A. T. 2006. Structural Equation Modelling Dalam Penelitian Manajemen. Semarang: Badan Penerbit Universitas Diponegoro.
Frings, G. S. 2007. Fashion: From Concept to Consumer. Prentice Hall. Ghozali, I. 2008. Structural Equation Modeling Metode Alternatif dengan Partial Least
Square. Semarang: Badan Penerbit Universitas Diponegoro.
Gilboa, I., Fabio, M., Marinacci, M., Schmeidler, D. 2010. Objective and Subjective Rationality in a Multiple Prior Model. Econometrica. Journal of The Econometric
Society , 755-770.
Hartono, J. 2005. Analisis Desain Sistem Informasi Pendekatan Terstruktur Teori dan Praktek Aplikasi Bisnis.
Yogyakarta: Andi. Irawan, H. 2008. 10 Karakter Unik Konsumen Indonesia. Jakarta: Publishing One.
Kuncoro, M. 2003. Metode Riset untuk Bisnis dan Ekonomi. Jakarta: Erlangga. Marteney, J. 2009. Generational Differences and Communication. 20th Annual Sara Vanum
Institute for Instructional Excellence - A Conference for Part-Time Faculty. Salem, Oregon:
Professional Development and Organizational Development. Merdina, R. 2012. Potensi Digital Natives Dalam Representasi Literasi Informasi
Multimedia Berbasis Web Di Perguruan Tinggi. Jurnal Pustakawan Indonesia , 5-14. OCass, A. 2004. Fashion Clothing Consumption: Antecedents and Consequences of
Fashion Clothing Involvement. European Journal of Marketing , 869-882. Rook, D. W., Fisher, R. J. 1995. Normative Influences on Impulsive Buying Behavior.
Journal of Consumer Research , 305-313.
Stern, H. A. 1962. The significance of impulse buying today. Journal of Marketing , 59-62. Strauss, W., Howe, N. 1991. Generations. U.S: Weekly.
Sugiyono. 2007. Statistik untuk Penelitian. Jakarta: CV. Alfabeta. Swastha, B., Handoko, H. 1987. Manajemen Pemasaran. Yogyakarta: Erlangga.
Tapscott, D. 2009. Grown Up Digital: How the Net Generation is Changing Your World. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Visser, E., Preez, R. d. 2001. Apparel shopping orientation: Two decades of research. Journal of Family Ecology and Consumer Sciences
, 72-81. Zablocki, B. D., Kanter, R. M. 1976. The Differentiation of Life-Styles. Annual
Reviews of Sociology , 269-298.
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
47
Cross-Cultural Adjustment among Foreign Expatriates of Oil and Gas Industry in Kuala Lumpur
MOHD SYAHRIL MOHD SYUKRI International Business Department
Universiti Teknologi MARA Melaka 78000 Alor Gajah Melaka
MALAYSIA msyahrilmsyukrigmail.com
FARRAH OTHMAN International Business Department
Universiti Teknologi MARA Melaka 78000 Alor Gajah Melaka
MALAYSIA farrahothmanmelaka.uitm.edu.my
NORAZAMIMAH BOGAL Marketing Department
Universiti Teknologi MARA Melaka 78000 Alor Gajah Melaka
MALAYSIA azamimah174melaka.uitm.edu.my
NURUL AIDA HARUN Insurance Department
Universiti Teknologi MARA Melaka 78000 Alor Gajah Melaka
MALAYSIA nurulaida552melaka.uitm.edu.my
SURYA AHMAD ROYALI Marketing Department
Universiti Teknologi MARA Melaka 78000 Alor Gajah Melaka
MALAYSIA surya107melaka.uitm.edu.my
Abstract The report stated 25 to 40 range of failed assignment McCaughey and Bruning 2005
which cost organizations approximately one million dollars per expatriate Shaffer and Harrison 1998; Shaffer, Harrison and Gilley, 1999. These issues most of the times come
from the fact that expatriates are unable to familiarize themselves in the new environment they live in. Without effective adjustment, expatriates may perform poorly in foreign lands
and end up reflecting badly on the image of their companies. The purpose of this study was to determine the significance factors that lead to cultural adjustment among foreign expatriates
of oil and gas industry in Kuala Lumpur. The study will be conducted by using a survey
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
48
approach. Self-administered questionnaires were distributed to 70 foreign expatriates currently working in oil and gas industry in Kuala Lumpur using convenience sampling
methods. The data was analyzed by using SPSS 22.0. Statistical test such as reliability analysis, correlation analysis and regressions were applied in this research. The finding
indicated that social supports give the most influences to the level of cultural adjustment among foreign expatriates of oil and gas industry. The research also indicated spouse supports
and cross-cultural training also give influences to the culture adjustment as well. Spouse supports have positive relationship towards the culture adjustment while cross-cultural
training has negative relationship towards the culture adjustment. Social support in the host country was the most influenced predictor of cross-cultural adjustment that needs to highlight
by multinational companies in order to minimize cost of expatriates failure. Key Words
: Expatriates, Cross-cultural Adjustment, Social Support
INTRODUCTION
Globalization of business has led to more employees being sent on foreign assignments than ever before with every indication that the use of expatriates will continue to expand
in the future Van der Bank Rothmann, 2006. It has been estimated that more than 250,000 employees of US firms work on overseas assignments Kraimer, Wayne and
Jaworski, 2001 and 67 of companies reported an increase in the size of their expatriate population GMAC Global Relocation Services, 2008. This means that there is also an
increasing of global assignments. Because global assignments are important for both
individuals’ career growth and organizations’ global success, having a systematic means to predict who will be most likely to succeed in these critical assignments Is also
increasing in importance. The need for multinational organizations to improve their ability to predict success on global assignments is compounded by the fact that many
global assignments are not successful Black, Gregersen, Mendenhall, 1992. In order to advance on the expatriate adjustment and cross-cultural training, a research is needed to
be conducted. The inability of a manager to adjust, the inability of a spouse and children to adjust plus
of other issues Chew, 2004 is the main reason why expatriate failure occurs. Cross- cultural training has been described by most researchers as one of global human resource
management’s most crucial activities and the potential benefits of effective training have been widely acknowledged Dowling Welch, 2004. The purpose of this paper is to
examine the most influenced factor that can contribute to the expatriate’s adjustment. Malaysia was chosen as the research setting for an investigation of the factors that
contribute to expatriate’s adjustment for some reason. English is a language commonly used in Malaysian organization by both host-country nationals and foreigners. This
facilitated conducting research in one language with all participants. Malaysia also has a large population of foreign executive from various countries. This provided the
perspectives of a reasonable number of foreign participants from a variety of cultural backgrounds. There were many MNC company from many different industries located in
Kuala Lumpur. But the study is only focused to the expatriates that worked for an Oil and Gas Industry. Finding of this result may help the MNC there to determine the most
influential factor to their expatriate’s adjustment.
Problem Statement
The report stated 25 to 40 range of failed assignment McCaughey and Bruning 2005 which cost organizations approximately one million dollars per expatriate Shaffer and
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
49
Harrison 1998; Shaffer, Harrison and Gilley 1999. These issues most of the times come from the fact that expatriates are unable to familiarize themselves in the new environment
they live in. Without effective adjustment, expatriates may perform poorly in foreign lands and end up reflecting badly on the image of their companies. Past research has been fairly
extensive in generating and testing factors that contribute to cross-cultural adjustment Bhaskar-Shrinivas et al. 2005. The international movement of human resources has
generated the development of research which targets the adjustment of expatriates in the foreign cultures. However, previous research have been developed, designed and conducted
mostly for the needs of American expatriates who are preparing for international assignments. Information on preparing to go for Malaysian assignments was rare and needed. This study
investigated foreign expatriates of oil and gas industry in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Malaysia is one of a developing country. Organizations consider the country as a major
market place for business expansion. Thus, this has pushed the inflow of expatriates into the country. According to the Malaysian Immigration Department 2009, Malaysia had 32,647
foreign expatriates with the service sector employing about 22,018 of them. When global companies need to maintain their identity, they rely on expatriates Tan Mahoney, 2006.
Expatriates ease the link of companies with other operations in nearby countries, improve the
company’s international knowledge and promote a clear understanding of international business Selmer Leung, 2002. Lee and Croker, 2006 conclude that expatriates execute a
vital role for their organization such as managing, coordinating and sending information in between multinational and international businesses.
A failure of expatriate’s adjustment can affect the company in terms of business opportunities that have been lost and bad reputation and believed that sending workers and their families for
3 years abroad can cost up to US1 million Ramalu, Rose, Uli and Kumar, 2010. Alongside the company losing some good opportunities, the expatriates also get affected by the loss of
self-esteem, self-confidence, and prestige among peers Hechanova, Beehr and Christiansen, 2003.
A consequence of insufficient preparation is that it causes adjustment problems when the
expatriate is not familiar with the host country’s culture, and when the problems are not tackled in time, this might lead to failure of the foreign assignment Hutchings, 2005. It may
further be a lack of personality skills for the expatriate to understand the cross-cultural interactions, a lack of technical abilities for the work to be done, a lack of motivation for the
foreign assignment, or the expatriate may have difficulties to understand and adapt to either the physical or the cultural differences in the environment Littrell et al., 2006. All that things
that contribute to the failing of expatriate in their international assignments can be solve with an effective cross-cultural adjustment.
As a result this perhaps will help organizations elaborate on things they should do prior to hiring expatriates who will eventually help them experience good jobs performance from their
employees and avoid premature return which has become a problem.
Research Questions
RQ1: Is there any significances relationship between the family and spouse support and the cross-cultural adjustment?
RQ2: Is there any significances relationship between the social support and the cross- cultural adjustment?
RQ3: Is there any significances relationship between the cross-cultural training and the cross- cultural adjustment?
RQ4: Which variable contributes most in explaining how an expatriates form their cross- cultural adjustment?
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
50
Objectives of the Study
To identify whether there is significant relationship between family and spouse support towards cross-cultural adjustment
To identify whether there is significant relationship between social supports towards cross- cultural adjustment.
To identify whether there is significant relationship between cross-cultural training towards cross-cultural adjustment.
To identify the most influencing variables in forming an effective cross-cultural adjustment.
Scope of Study
This research is limiting itself only towards the expatriates that currently work in oil and gas industries located in Kuala Lumpur. This research is will focused on the factors that
contribute to the expatriate’s adjustment process. The respondent of this study will be picked randomly among the expatriates Kuala Lumpur. The total respondents that need to be
collected for this research is totaled 70 persons as the researcher didn’t have enough time to get more respondents for a given time.
Significances
Researcher The significant of the study to the researcher is it allows better understanding besides provide
more knowledge and information to the researcher as regard to the cross-cultural adjustment. The study edify researcher to learn the right way of conducting business research by giving
exposure and experience to conduct the study. By highlighted certain elements that can be consider as significant factors contributing to the cross-cultural adjustment, it allow researcher
to come out with strong and good recommendation for strategies improvement and enhancement.
Expatriates This study will be very helpful for the expatriates to perform well for their organization and
help them reduce some dissatisfaction in their job. This research will help the management to aware on the need of expatriates and help the management to provide something for their
expatriate to perform in their work. Multinational Corporations
Finding of this study might be used by the management of companies in order to improve their expatri
ation and to reduce down the number of expatriates’ immature returns. In addition companies can improve their skill to manage the expatriates.
Limitations
Access to Confidential Data and Availability of Data To finish this study, researcher needs much information from the company where the research
conducted itself. Most of the documents and data are private and confidential thus made the researcher encountered some difficulties to access primary data. Most of this research
information comes from secondary data sources. A secondary source only provides accuracy and availability of data that is fully depends on the published material.
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
51
LITERATURE REVIEW
Research Variables 1
Cross-cultural Adjustment Culture.
Culture consists of patterns of behaviors that are acquired and transmitted by symbols overtime, which become generally shared within a group and are communicated to
new members of the group in order to serve as a cognitive guide or blueprint for future actions Black and Mendenhall: 1990. This means people from different culture have a different
patterns of behavior, believe and perspective on how they view this world. Those differences caused cross-culture problems when a person from different culture interacting with other
people from other culture. The problem might arise because of the failure in communication either the language or some sort of styles in delivering the message.
In general, degree of psychological comfort with various aspects of a host country is what is meant by cross-cultural adjustment Black, 1988. Cross-cultural adjustment is defined as the
process of adaptation to living and working in a foreign culture which perceived degree of psychological comfort and familiarity a person has with the new host culture Black, 1991.
U-curve theory of adjustment.
Early research on expatriate adjustment focused mostly on cross-cultural adjustment issues and scholars relied on the U-curve theory UCT of
adjustment. To describe the cross-cultural adjustment process of expatriate employees or sojourners within a host culture, the UCT will be used to refer Usunier, 1998. It includes
discussions of four stages of adjustment. Refer to FIGURE 1. FIGURE 1: STAGES OF ADJUSTMENT
Sources from: Usunier, J. 1998 The honeymoon stage occurs during the first week after arrival at the host country.
Individuals are fascinated by the new and different culture. When the newcomers start to cope with the real conditions on a daily basis, the second stage begins which is culture shock.
This stage is characterized by frustration and hostility towards the host nation and its people. The third stage is the adjustment stage, in which the individual gradually adapts to the new
norms and values of the host country and is able to act more appropriately than they were before. Finally, in the mastery stage, the individual is able to function effectively in the new
culture. Many studies have found that the crucial problem for the expatriate is that adaptation to the unfamiliar culture than with their professional expertise Aahad and Osman-Ghani
2000. Successful adaptation and cultural adjustment not only directly influence expatriates performance but also lead to corporate success in the international stage.
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
52
2 Family and Spouse Supports
Family supports refer to the cohesion or closeness that family members feel toward one
another Olson et al, 1984. The amount of emotional support family members give to one another is the behavioral result from this family cohesion. With a healthy level of family
support, the family members have the ability to form healthy autonomous bonds with others outside of the family system while still feeling as though they are an integrated part of the
family system Minuchin, 1974. If the family is not supportive, they tend to ignore each
other’s needs and lead to dysfunctional, especially during stressful periods. And when the family is “too” supportive, it is supportive to the point of being stifling, and the family
members tend to be overly influenced by each me mber’s problems and concerns. This too
can cause greater stress and reduce autonomy of the family members Paula M Caligiuri, Mary Anne M. Hyland, and Aparna Joshi, 1998.
Family adaptability. According to Olson et al. 1984, the effectiveness of change in its rules
of functioning as a result of the external stressor is used to indicate the adaptability of the family. Families need to adapt to the developmental changes of the family members and the
extra familial pressures that influence the family Paula M Caligiuri, Mary Anne M. Hyland, and Aparna Joshi, 1998. Family that functioning well is able to accommodate the changes
while maintaining the family system continuity Minchuin, 1974. Family communication.
Communication is the third factor that emerges as a predominant theme in the literature on family systems. An effective communication is the characteristic
that enables the evolution of the other two attributes of family functioning Olson et al. 1984. It is refers to the ability to exchange opinions, respect differing opinions, establish decision-
making rules, resolve conflicts, and so on. A healthy level of family communication will result in both effective support as well as adaptability. A positive attitude toward the global
assignment can help the families spend less energy on their anxieties and more energy on positive coping behaviors that would lead to better adjustment Feldman Tompson 1993.
Spillover theory.
This theory suggests that a working spouse’s experiences will carry over into the home likewise, home experiences can influence a person’s work life Crouter, 1984
It states that the relationship between affective responses in one’s work life and family life is reciprocal. Spillover occurs when workers carry their positive or negative emotions and
attitudes from their work life into their home life Kelly Voydanoff 1985 and when they carry over emotions and attitudes from their home back to the work environment Belsky,
Perry Jenkins Crouters, 1985. For these reason, the researcher believe the study of home to work in a global context is justified. A family adjustment is a mediator of the relationship
between family characteristic and expatriates’ adjustment to working in the host country Paula M Caligiuri, Mary Anne M. Hyland, and Aparna Joshi, 1998.
3 Social Support
Social support. Gottlied 2000 defined social support more broadly as the “process of
interaction in relationships which improves coping, esteem, belonging, and competence through actual or perceived
exchanges of physical or psychosocial resources” with the key features of interaction, coping, esteem, belonging, competence and exchange. It is emphasis
on communication by indicating that social support is an interactive process. Social support can lead to improvement in several areas of health and well being. Communication that helps
people cope with a situation, makes them feel better about themselves by raising their sense of self-esteem, reaffirms their association or sense of belonging to a group or improves their
ability or competence to perform needed task all are considered forms of social support. Communication that leads to these supportive outcomes occurs through an exchange of
physical or psychological resources between at least two individuals. While Schaefer, Coyne and Lazarus 1981 defined social support as emotional support,
esteem support, network support, information support, tangible support. The emotional support
is the communication that meets an individual’s emotional or affective needs. The
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
53
esteem support is the communication that bolsters an individuals’ self-esteem or beliefs in
their ability to handle a problem or perform a needed task. Network support refers to communication that affirms individuals’ belonging to a network or reminds them of support
available from the network. While information support is a communication that provides useful or needed information and last is tangible support which is any physical assistance
provided by other. 4
Cross-cultural Training Cross-cultural Training or CCT.
CCT has been defined in many different ways, but the definition to understand it in its entirety is that ‘it is the educative processes used to improve
intercultural learning via the development of the cognitive, affective and behavioral competencies needed for successful interactions in diverse cultures’ Littrell, 2006.
Generally, CCT was focused on preparing employees for overseas assignments, its incorporation into multicultural training means that organizations are now using it to improve
the cultural awareness of domestic employees with the hope that it would empower them to interact with individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds. Cross cultural training is
designed to teach trainees both the content and skills that they need in order to effectively interact with culturally different others in cope with change. A cross cultural trained
individual is less likely to be a victim of cross cultural misunderstanding or engaged inappropriate behaviors Black and Mendenhall, 1991.
Due to the higher movement of international assignment, the issues that are associated with the management of human resources across international borders have become of increasing
importance to international Human Resource Management IHRM mangers and academics. An individuals and organizations need to be cross-culturally sensitive, adaptive and
responsive when managing internationally if non-adjustment and expatriate failure is to be avoided.
Expatriates.
An individuals who relocate from one country to the other for at least one year is called as expatriate Littrell, 2006. Most expatriation trainings focus on long term
expatriation as opposed to short term or extended business visits. The difference between expatriation and short term visits is intensity because during a short term visit, the individual
is mentally aware that he or she is going back to the home country, and is aware that it does not require as much adjustment as long term expatriation A. Eshter Joshua-Gojer, 2012.
There is two types of CCT which is pre-departure training and after arrival training. Expatriates play central roles as controllers, coordinators and those who transfer knowledge
within multinational and global firms. However, there is a lack of competent expatriates within companies Suutari Burch, 2001. Thus, training becomes an important way to
promote the competence of expatriates. Cross-cultural Adjustment versus Family and Spouse Support
Shaffer 1990 find spouse adjustment to be significantly positive to the related general adjustment. The fact that family plays an important role in expatriate adjustment is also
supported by Bonsiep 2003 indicating that family adjustment is significantly positive related to work and interaction adjustment. Spouse is also found to be positively related with general
adjustment in the studies of Black and Gregersen 1991. Cross-cultural Adjustment versus Social Support
There were a past research on social support which has consistently shown that expatriates with higher level of social support can overcome the psychological distress associated with
those aspects of working, living and interacting in the host country that are particularly difficult to adjust Farh, 2010. Besides, Stroppa and Spier 2011, has determined that social
support is an essential factor related to the context of assignment to a foreign country. Kraimer and Wayne 2004, has composed social support into two sub-dimensions which is
perceived organizational support and supervisor support. While Stroppa and Spier 2011,
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
54
classified social support into two components of co-worker and supervisor support. In 2007, Kupka and Cathro finds the social support literature suggests that support from multiple
sources such as organizations, supervisors, and colleagues can promote an individual’s work
adjustment by reducing psychological distress in multi-cultural situations. Thus, these variables by Kupka and Cathro are also adopted for this study.
Cross-cultural Adjustment versus Cross-cultural Training CCT is important for a host of reasons. Black and Mendenhall 1990 wrote a review of
previous studies done about the effectiveness of CCT. Their first finding supported their main argument that training gives an expatriate the ability to more easily adjust to a new culture
and as a result of that, be able to perform better. And many studies had been conducted has a
same result stating CCT helps expatriate’s adjustment. FIGURE 2: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Hypothesis H
: There is no significance relationship between family and spouse support with cross- cultural adjustment.
H
1
: There is a significance relationship between family and spouse support with cross-cultural adjustment.
Cross-Cultural Adjustment
Family and Spouse Support
Social Support
Cross-Cultural Training
Independent Variables
Dependent Variables
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
55
H : There is no significance relationship between social support and cross-cultural adjustment.
H
1
: There is a significance relationship between social support and cross-cultural adjustment. H
: There is no significance relationship between cross-cultural training and cross-cultural adjustment.
H
1
: There is a significance relationship between cross-cultural training and cross-cultural adjustment.
METHODOLOGY
Sampling Frame For this research, in order to select a sampling frame, the sampling frame that being used in
this study is engineer, geologist and managers in oil and gas industry that located in Kuala Lumpur. The samples were selected randomly among them.
Sampling Technique The researcher use non-probability sampling technique which is named as a convenience
sampling. It is being drawn from part of population which is close to hand. The sample population selected because it is readily available and convenient. The researcher using such
a sample cannot scientifically make generalizations about the total population of foreign expatriates in Kuala Lumpur because it might be not representative enough.
Sampling Size In summary, the samples in this research are considered to be sufficient in size to represent
and generalize to the research population with an acceptable level of confidence. In multivariate research, including multiple regression analysis, the sample size should be
several times as large as the number in variables in the study. The appropriate sample size for this study is 70 respondents which comprised people work in oil and gas industry in Kuala
Lumpur. Research Instrument
The researcher used the questionnaire as the major instrument to collect the data from respondents. The questionnaire made is consists of five sections:
TABLE 1: QUESTIONNAIRE’S SECTIONS Section A is consisting of 6 questions, Section B is consisting of 5 Questions and Section C,
D, E is consisting of 5 questions that are related with the factor that contribute to an
expatriate’s adjustment. Certain proper scaling technique was used to make the information gathering more significant and reliable. For this research, a few measurements were used in
the questionnaire design. Nominal Scale Multiple Choices
This scale was used in Section A, where the respondents need to tick the right that suits them the most. Table below are the example of the question.
Section A Demographic Profile
Section B Cross-cultural Adjustment
Section C Family Support
Section D Social Support
Section E Cross-cultural Training
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
56
TABLE 2: Nominal Scale Male
Female √
Likert Scale In Section B until Section D, Likert Scale of five-point interval was used. The Likert Scales
was designed to examine how strongly respondents agree or disagree with the statements on a five-point scale. The questionnaire would end with an expression of sincere gratitude from the
researcher to the respondents.
Example: TABLE 3: Point of Scale
Data Collection Method Primary Data
The primary data can be used to gather the information by asking the respondents about the
factor that can contribute an expatriate’s adjustment. Method can be used such as surveying by having an interview or conversation with the readers in order to obtain the information.
The advantage of using questionnaire is the researcher can collect all the complete responses within a short period of time and easy face-to-face respondent and also can be distribute the
questionnaire via email by using Internet. Online Journal
Besides
that data mostly
is gathered
from the
Emerald Insight
and ezaccess.library.uitm.edu.my website. It is to find the online journal that relate with the topic.
It is written by various authors and provides much information to support the study. It might be useful to support some facts or information gathered from other sources. Online searches
of information via the internet search engines such as Google and Yahoo are also being assessed to get the instant and updated data also being used as sources of information.
Internet It is an effective tool in order to search lots of information. One of the benefits of Internet is
all information provided is worldwide. Servers that can be used are Emerald Insight, Yahoo Search engine and Google Search engine.
Data Analysis The study used Statistical Package for Social Science SPSS for the analysis data captured.
The data gathered through this analysis are illustrated in the form of tables and bar charts for easy reference and understanding. Besides that, it also can get the number of respondents
associated with different values of the variables and to express in percentage term. Furthermore, the researcher used Descriptive Analysis for this research. This method is
divided into two types of analysis which is reliability test, frequency distribution, correlation coefficient, and descriptive statistic.
1 2
3 4
5 Strongly
Disagree Disagree
Neutral Agree
Strongly Agree
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
57
FINDING
Reliability Test According to William Zikmund 2000, when the Cronbach‘s Alpha is 8 - .9 it means the
data obtained from study is considered as very good. Thus, all questions for this study are acceptable.
The Cronbach‘s Alpha for the dependent variable is .862. It is within the rank of .8 - .9 which means the data obtained from study is considered very good. All 5 questions for this
dependent variable are reliable.
The Cronbach’s Alpha for this independent variable is .654 which is considered moderate. Although it is considered moderate but the questionnaire is still acceptable to be used.
Reliability Statistic – Social Support Independent Variable
Cronbach’s Alpha Number of Items
0.748 5
TABLE 4: Reliability Statistic: Dependent And Independent
Cronbach’s Alpha Number of Items .875
20 TABLE 5: Reliability Statistic: Cross-Culture AdjustmentDependent Variable
Cronbach’s Alpha Number of Items 0.862
5
TABLE 6: Reliability Statistic: Family And Spouse Support Independent Variable Cronbach’s Alpha Number of Items
0.645 5
TABLE 7: Reliability Statistic: Social Support Independent Variable
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
58
The Cronbach’s Alpha for this independent variable is .748 which is considered in the rank of .7 -
.8 and considered good. That’s mean that the questionnaire is reliable. Reliability Statistic
– Cross-cultural Training Independent Variable
Cronbach’s Alpha Number of Items
0.695 5
The Cronbach‘s Alpha for the dependent variable is .695. It is within the rank of .6 - .7 which means that the data obtained from study is considered moderate. All 5 questions for
this dependent variable is still acceptable. Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients of all variables tested were all above 0.6. Therefore,
this shows that there is inter-item consistency reliability among the variables analyzed. Frequency Distribution
The findings are derived from 70 sets of questionnaires that are distributed randomly among the foreign expatriates that worked in Oil and Gas Company in Kuala Lumpur. This analysis
described the demographic variables of the respondents. Demographic Profile
The table 4.7 indicates the gender of respondents who answered the questionnaire. Based on the data gathered, there are 59 male respondents and 11 female respondents which is 80.0
and 20.0 respectively. As conclusion, the respondents mostly are a male. TABLE 8: Reliability Statistic: Cross-cultural Training Independent Variable
TABLE 9: Gender Frequency
Percent Valid Percent
Cumulative Percent
Valid Male 56
80.0 80.0
80.0 Female
14 20.0
20.0 100.0
Total 70
100.0 100.0
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
59
TABLE 10: Marital Status
The TABLE 10 indicates the marital status of respondents of these studies. Based on the table, there is 32 respondents are single, 24 respondents married and the rest already divorced
means that 45.7 of respondents are single, 34.3 married and 20.0 already divorced. As a conclusion, most of the respondents are single respondents.
TABLE 11: Age
The TABLE 11 indicates the age of the respondents that answering the questionnaire. The table shows that there are only 2 respondents that are age between 20 to 30 years which means
2.9 of the total respondents. 41 persons or 58.6 of respondents are between 31 to 40 years, 22 persons or 31.4 between 41 to 50 years and 5 persons or 7.1 are above 50 years.
Therefore, most of the respondents are between 31 to 40 years. Frequency
Percent Valid Percent
Cumulative Percent
Valid Single 32 45.7
45.7 45.7
Married 24
34.3 34.3
80.0 Divorced 14
20.0 20.0
100.0 Total
70 100.0
100.0
Frequency Percent
Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent Valid 20-30
2 2.9
2.9 2.9
31-40 41
58.6 58.6
61.4 41-50
22 31.4
31.4 92.9
50 5
7.1 7.1
100.0 70
100.0 100.0
TABLE 12: Region of Origin Frequency
Percent Valid Percent
Cumulative Percent
Valid European 15
21.4 21.4
21.4 Asian
17 24.3
24.3 45.7
North American 8 11.4
11.4 57.1
South American 14
20.0 20.0
77.1 Australian
16 22.9
22.9 100.0
Total 70
100.0 100.0
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
60
TABLE 12 indicates the region of origin of the respondents. It states that there are 15 respondents comes from region of Europe, 17 respondents are from Asia region, 8 from North
America, 14 respondents from South America and 16 respondents are from Australia. The highest is from Asian region which is 24.3 of the overall respondents and the lowest is
11.4 which comes from North America.
TABLE 13 indicates the education level of the respondents of these studies. The table shows there are 15 respondents that are holding Diploma which is 21.3 of the total respondents, 50
persons or 71.4 of respondents holding Bachelor Degree and 5 respondent holding Master Degree which is 7.1. From that, we can see most of the respondents are holding Bachelor
Degree. TABLE 13: Education Level
Frequency Percent
Valid Percent Cumulative
Percent Valid Diploma
15 21.4
21.4 21.4
Bachelor Degree
50 71.4
71.4 92.9
Master Degree
5 7.1
7.1 100.0
Total 70
100.0 100.0
TABLE 14: Correlation Statistic . Correlation is significant at 0.01 level 2-tailed.
Variables DV
IV1 IV2
IV3 Cross-cultural
Adjustment DV Pearson Correlation
1 Sig. 2-tailed
N 70
Family and
Spouse Support IV1 Pearson Correlation
.364 1
Sig. 2-tailed .002
N 70
70 Social Support
IV2 Pearson Correlation .772
.377 1
Sig. 2-tailed .000
.001 N
70 70
70 Cross-cultural
Training IV3 Pearson Correlation
.334 .447
.557 1
Sig. 2-tailed .005
.000 .000
N 70
70 70
70
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
61
The intercorrelations among the study variables are shown in TABLE 14. This table is measure using Pearson Correlation matrix. A Pearson correlation matrix will indicate the
direction, strength, and significance of the bivariate relationships among all the variables that were measured at an interval or ratio level. The correlation is derived by assessing the
variations in one variable as another variable also varies. Family and Spouse Support
First independent variable which is family and spouse support, the result of Pearson correlation test showed that there is a moderate relationship r=0.364, p0.01 between family
and spouse and cross-culture adjustment. P-value is very significant and it shows that there is an empirical evidence to suggest that there is a relationship between family and spouse
supports and cross-culture adjustment, hence family and spouse supports have an impact
towards expatriate’s cross-culture adjustment. Therefore, the two variables are related. Social Supports
Second independent variable which is social support, the result of Pearson correlation test showed that there is a Moderate Relationship r=0.772, p0.01 between social and cross-
culture adjustment. P-value is very significant and it shows that there is an empirical evidence to suggest that there is a relationship between social supports and cross-culture
adjustment, hence social supports have an impact towards expatriate’s cross-culture adjustment. Therefore, the two variables are related.
Cross-cultural Training Third independent variable which is cross-cultural training, the result of Pearson correlation
test showed that there is a moderate relationship r=0.334, p0.01 between cross-cultural training and cross-culture adjustment. P-value is very significant and it shows that there is an
empirical evidence to suggest that there is a relationship between cross-cultural training and cross-culture adjustment, hence cross-cultural training have an impac
t towards expatriate’s cross-culture adjustment. Therefore, the two variables are related.
Descriptive Analysis This research will be emphasize on descriptive analysis in which to find research objective on
which culture could give dominant impact to the performance management. It is based on likert scale, where 1 is strongly disagree until 5 that is strongly agree.
Based on Table above, the mean on all variables are observed as somewhat enriched. The maximum of 5 indicates that some are highly agree with all variable cross-cultural
adjustment, family and spouse support, social support and cross. The values for minimum that ranged from 1.20 to 2.00 indicate that some were rather low on the study variables.
TABLE 15 shows the ranking of factor of descriptive statistics which indicated the most TABLE 15: Descriptive Statistic
N Minimum
Maximum Mean
Std. Deviation DV
70 2.20
5.00 4.0571
.62242 IV1
70 2.00
5.00 3.4829
.61053 IV2
70 1.20
5.00 3.8114
.74979 IV3
70 1.20
4.80 3.2371
.69139 Valid N
listwise 70
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
62
influence factors to the cross-cultural adjustment among foreign expatriate in Kuala Lumpur. The factor that influenced the most towards cross-cultural adjustment is social supports. This
is because it has the highest mean which is 3.8114. Therefore, social support is the most influence factor that gives impact towards cross-culture adjustment among foreign expatriates
in Kuala Lumpur which worked in oil and gas industry. Regression Analysis
Regression analysis was conducted to establish the contribution of family and spouse supports, social supports and cross-cultural training independent variables to foreign
expatriates of Oil and Gas Industry adjustment’s in Kuala Lumpur. According to the results in TABLE 16, family and spouse supports, social supports and cross-cultural training
accounted for 62 R Square = 0.625 of the variation in foreign expatriates of oil and gas industry adjustment’s. The results also indicate that an estimation of foreign expatriates of oil
and gas industry adjustments can only be wrong by 0.39. TABLE 16: Model Summary
b
Model R
R Square Adjusted
R Square
Std. Error of the Estimate
1 .790
.625 .608
.38993 a. Predictiors: Constat, CrossCulturalTraining, FamilyandSpouseSupport,
SocialSupport b. Dependent Variable: Cross Cultural Adjustment
Table 17: ANOVA
a
Model Sum
of Squares
Df Mean
Square F
Sig. 1 Regression
16.696 3
5.565 36.604
.000
b
Residual 10.035
66 .152
Total 26.731
69 a. Predictiors: Constat, Cross Cultural Training, Family and SpouseSupport,
SocialSupport b. Dependent Varialbe: CrossCulturalAdjustment
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
63
ANOVA test TABLE 17 revealed an F-value of 36.604 and P-value of 0.00. Since P-value is far much less than the alpha level 0.05, it implies that independent variables, contributed
significantly to variation in the dependent variable.
Family and Spouse Supports
Based on TABLE 18, the coefficient for family and spouse supports is 0.137 which means the variables has positive relationship. So for every 1 unit of standard deviation change in family
and spouse supports is expected to result in a 0.137 unit of standard deviation change in cross- cultural adjustment is predicted, holding all other variables constant. The coefficient for
family and spouse supports 0.137 is not significantly related to cross cultural adjustment because its p-value is 0.114, which is larger than 0.05. Hence, for Objective 1, reject H
1
and accept H
. Social Support
Based on TABLE 18, the coefficient for social supports is 0. 825 which mean the variables have positive relationship. So for every 1 unit of standard deviation change in social supports
is expected to result in 0. 825 standard deviation changes in cross-cultural adjustment are predicted, holding all other variables constant. The coefficient for social supports 0. 825 is
significantly related to cross-cultural adjustment because its p-value is 0.000, which is smaller than 0.05. Hence, for Objective 2, reject H
and accept H
1
. TABLE 18: Coefficients
a
Model Unstandardized
Coefficients Standardized
Coefficients
t Sig.
B Std.
Error Beta
1 Constant 1.505
.313 4.799
.000 FamilyandSpouseSupport .140
.087 .137
1.600 .114
SocialSupport .685
.077 .825
8.946 .000
CrossCulturalTraining -.168
.086 -.186
-1.951 .055
a. Dependent Variable: CrossCulturalAdjustment
Objective 1: To identify whether there is significant relationship between family and spouse support toward cross-cultural adjustment.
H :
There is no significance relationship between family and spouse support with cross-cultural adjustment.
H
1
: There is a significance relationship between family and spouse support
with cross-cultural adjustment.
Objective 2: To identify whether there is significant relationship between
social supports toward cross-cultural adjustment. H
: There is no significance relationship between social supports
with cross-cultural adjustment. H
1
: There is a significance relationship between social supports with
cross-cultural adjustment.
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
64
Cross-cultural Training
Based on TABLE 18, the coefficient for cross-cultural training is -0.186 which mean the variables have negative relationship. So for every 1 unit standard deviation change in cross-
cultural training is expected to result in -0.186 standard deviation changes in cross-cultural adjustment, holding all other variables constant. The coefficient for cross-cultural training -
0.186 is not significantly related to cross-cultural adjustment because its p-value is 0.055, which is larger than 0.05. Hence, for Objective 3, reject H
1
and accept H .
There are more than one analyses were done in this chapter to test the hypotheses. The researcher is using SPSS to analyses and interprets the data. The first analysis was frequency
analysis of the demographics gender, marital status, and age, region of origin, religion and educational level.
The result of the frequencies analysis show that there are 80 of male respondent and 20 of female respondent which means male is more than female respondents. The respondents
are majority still single which hold 45.7 followed married respondents 34.3 and divorced respondent 20. Next analysis is calculated by the age of the respondents, 2.9 of
respondents in the range of age 20
– 30 years old which is the lowest one and 31- 40 years old 58.6 hold the highest percentage of total respondents. This research have a highest
respondents that is come from Asian region which hold 24.3, Australia region 22.9, Europe region 21.4, South American 20.0 and the lowest is North American which hold
only 11.4. Half of the respondents are Christian follower and the other half includes Hindu, Buddhist, Muslim and other religion. And lastly 71.4 of the respondents are Bachelor
Degree holder followed by 21.4 of Diploma holder and 7.1 Master Degree holder. Intercorrelation and means for all the independent and dependent variables used in this study
are presented in TABLE 14 and TABLE 15. Alpha reliabilities for the scale variables are shown in parentheses along the diagonal. As table of correlation reflects, each dependent
variable family and spouse supports, social supports and cross-cultural training was significantly related to the independent variables cross-cultural adjustment.
Specifically, family and spouse support was significantly related to cross-cultural adjustment r= .364, p=0.01, social supports was significantly related to cross-cultural adjustment r=
.772, p = 0.01, and cross-cultural training was significantly related to cross-cultural adjustment r=.334, p=0.01. The results of the correlation analysis provide preliminary
support for the hypothesized relations in this study. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to test the relationships between the family and
spouse supports, social supports and cross-cultural training and foreign expatriate of Oil and Gas Industry adjustments. The result shows that, the coefficient for family and spouse
supports 0.137 is not significantly related to cross-cultural adjustment because its p-value is 0.114, The coefficient for social supports 0. 825 is significantly related to cross-cultural
adjustment because its p-value is 0.000 and the coefficient for cross-cultural training -0. 186 is not significantly related to cross-cultural adjustment because its p-value is 0.055, Hence,
Hypothesis H1 is accepted for the social support and null hypothesis is rejected in the research Objective 3:
To identify whether there is significant relationship between cross-cultural training toward cross-cultural adjustment.
H :
There is no significance relationship between cross-cultural training with cross-cultural adjustment.
H
1
: There is a significance relationship between cross-cultural
training with cross-cultural adjustment.
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
65
objective 2, that proposed that there is a significance relationship between social supports with cross-cultural adjustment, .was supported.
CONCLUSION
In summary, this research finds that social supports are the strongest variable of foreign expatriate in the s
tudy sample. These results were exemplified in the Pearson’s correlation coefficient. It provides additional evidence to suggest that social supports explain the most
contributing factor that influence in foreign expatriates of Oil and Gas adjustment in Kuala Lumpur with the highest coefficient which is 0.825. Further, it replicates and confirms J.
Palthe 2004 point regarding cross-culture adjustment. Social supports are one of the predicted outcomes of cross-cultural adjustment. The other finding is followed by family and
spouse supports and cross- cultural training. This study reveals that a social support in the host country is the most influenced predictor of cross-cultural adjustment. The result r=.772,
=0.01 is consistent to J. Palthe 2004 study r=0:77, p0:05. These results were exemplified by the Pearson correlation coefficient. This is an important finding, in that it
illuminates the strategic influence of host site socialization intervention, including social get- togethers and informa
l networking with host nationals, in expatriates’ adjustment abroad. It confirms Kraimer et al.’s 2001 previous propositions of cross-cultural adjustment where
previous studies have argued that social support i.e. supervisor support and perceived organizational support may play a prominent role in enhancing expatriate adjustment and
performance Kraimer et al., 2001; Lee, 2010. While there is still much to be learned about cross-cultural adjustment, this research makes several contributions. First, this study
highlights the importance of social supports in cross-cultural adjustment and the importance of family and spouse supports also the cross-cultural training in expatriate of Oil and Gas
Industry adjustment in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. It also investigated the effect of social
supports on expatriates’ adjustment. Second, it served to delineate the relative importance of each of these variables on each aspect of cross-cultural adjustment. However, this study
shows that cross-cultural training is not significantly related to cross-cultural adjustment because its p-value is 0.055, which is larger than 0.05. This study presented some preliminary
evidence that the effectiveness of cross- cultural training on expatriate managers’ adjustment
may not be contingent on the specific circumstances and the culture of the foreign assignment.
Recommendations
Family and Spouse Support Given the strength of the finding that spouse
–family adjustment plays such a crucial role in expatriate interaction and general adjustment, global corporations should continue to develop
human resource strategies, policies and practices that support expatriate family adjustment. For example, as suggested by Black and Stevens 1989, spouses and other family members
should be included in cross cultural training offered by the organization. Multinational
corporations could sponsor and develop family support programs that assist the expatriate’s family both prior to and during the assignment in the host country. Moreover, as Pellico and
Stroh 1997 suggest, spousal assistance programs, including proactive assistance with job searches and placements, should be an integral component of the international assignment.
Social Supports The result show the most influential factor contributing to the cross-cultural adjustment is
social supports which mean organization should more focused on the socialization of their expatriates. Organizations are recommended to provide more assignment that can helpful in
creating a feeling of togetherness among the expatriates and local employees so that the relationship among them are much easier to bond. That will automatically help the
socialization level of expatriates in the organization.
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
66
Suggestions for Future Research
Test on Different Samples or from Different Industry The respondents for this research are only from Oil and Gas Industry. The survey failed to be
generalized to all expatriates in Kuala Lumpur since it only focused on one industry and there are many other industry in Kuala Lumpur which having an expatriates in their operation.
More resources and efforts could be applied to safeguard larger samples of respondents, thus potentially resulting in better statistical data. Since our data were collected from Kuala
Lumpur, there may be some concern as to the generalizability of our findings to other expatriates working in other cities in Malaysia.
Test on other Independent Variables Given the strength of the relationship that was found between social supports at the host
company and each facet of adjustment, it would be valuable if researchers were to further explore the role that the host company plays in fostering an environment that enhances
adjustment. Future research could, for example, explore the role of host company communication networks and peer support in enhancing expatriate adjustment abroad. Other
than that, future research could also add more independent variable such as job satisfaction, learning orientation, distance of country of origin and other factor that can contribute to the
cross-culture adjustment.
Ref
e
rences
Aahad, M. Osman-Ghani. 2000. Developing expatriates for the Asia-Pacific region: a comparative analysis of multinational enterprise manager from five countries across
three countries. Human Resources Development Quartely, Vol.11 3, 213-235. Beehr, T.A., and Christiansen, N.D. 2003, Antecedents and consequences of employees’
adjustment to overseas assignment: A meta-analytic review, Applied Psychology, 52 2
, 213. Belsky, J ., Perry-Jenkins, M:, Crouter A . C . 1985 . The work-family interface and
marital change across the transition to parenthood. Journal of Family Issues, 6, 205- 220.
Bhaskar-Shrinivas, P., Harrison, D.A., Shaffer, M.A. and Luk, D. M. 2005. Input-based and time-based models of international adjustment: metaanalytic evidence and theoretical
extensions. Academy of Management Journal, 48, 257-281. Black, J.S. 1988. Work role transitions: a study of American expatriate managers in Japan,
Journal of International Business Studies, 19 2, 277-294.
Black, J.S. and Mendenhall, M. 1990. Cross-cultural training effectiveness: a review and a theoretical framework for future research. Academy of Management Review, 151,
113-136. Black, J.S. Gregersen, H.B., Mendenhall, M. 1992. Global assignments: successfully
expatriating and repatriating international managers . San Francisco, CA: Josey-
Bass. Black, J.S., Mendenhall, M. and Oddou, G.R. 1991, Towards a comprehensive model of
international adjustment: an integration of multiple theoretical perspectives. Academy of Management Review, 16
2, 291-317.
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
67
Black, J.S. and Gregersen, H.B. 1991a: The other half of the picture: antecedents of spouse cross-cultural adjustment. Journal of International Business Studies 223, 461-477.
Caligiuri, P. M., M. Hyland, M. Joshi, A. 1998. Testing a theoretical model for examining the relationship between family adjustment and expatriates work adjustment. Journal
of applied psychology, 83 4, 598-614.
Chew, J. 2004. Managing MNC expatriates through crises: A challenge for international human resource management. Research and Practice in Human Resource
Management, 12 2, 1
–30. Crouter, A . 1984 . Spillover from family to work: the neglected side of the work-family
interface . Human Relations, 37, 425-442. Dowling, P. J. Welch, D. E. 2004. International Human Resource Management
– Managing People in a Multinational Context
4th ed.. Thomson Learning, London. Expatica.com. 2014. Global relocation trends 2008. [online] Retrieved from:
http:www.expatica.comhrstoryReporting-on-global-relocation-trends-in- 2008.html [Accessed: 7 Nov 2013].
Gottlieb, B. 2000. Selecting and planning support interventions. In S. Cohen, L. Under- wood, B. Gottlieb Eds, Social support measurement and intervention pp. 195-
220. London: Oxford University Press. Hechanova, R., Beehr, T.A Christiansen, N.D 2003. Antecedents and consequences of
employees’ adjustment to overseas assignments: A Meta-Analytic Review. Applied Psychology: An International Review. 52
2, 213-236. Hutchings, K. 2005.
Koalas in the land of the pandas: reviewing Australian expatriates’ China preparation. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 16 4,
553-556. Kelly, R. F., Voydanoff, P. 1985. Workfamily role strain among employed parents.
Family Relations, 34 , 367-374.
Kraimer, M.L., Wayne, S.J. and Jaworski, R.A. 2001. Sources of support and expatriate performance: the mediating role of expatriate adjustment, Personnel Psychology, 54,
71-99. Kupka, B., Cathro, V. 2007. Desperate housewives - social and professional isolation of
German expatriated spouses. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 18
6, 951-968. Lee, L Croker, R. 2006. A contingency model to promote the effectiveness of expatriate
training. Industrial Management Data System. 1068, 1187-1205. Littrell, L. N., Salas, E., Hess, K. P., Paley, M. Riedel, S. 2006. Expatriate preparation: a
critical analysis of 25 years of cross-cultural training research, Human Resource Development Review, 5
3, 355-388. Malaysian Immigration Department. 2009. Statistics report on active trade officers
according to nationality for the period of 2004 to 31st October 2009. Minuchin, S . 1974. Families and family therapy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
68
Olson, D . H ., Russell, C. S ., Sprenkle, D . H. 1984 . Circumplex model of marital and family systems . In D . H . Olson B. C . Miller Eds ., Family Studies Review
Yearbook Vol .2 , pp. 59-74 . Beverly Hills, CA : Sage.
Palthe, J. P. 2004. The relative importance of antecedents to cross-cultural adjustment: Implications for managing a global workforce, International Journal of Intercultural
Relations, 28, 37-59.
Pellico, M. T., Stroh, L. K. 1997. Spousal assistance programs: An integral component of the international assignment. In D. M. Saunders, Z. Aycan Eds., New approaches
to employee management , Vol. 4. pp. 227
–243. Ramalu, S.S, Rose, R., Uli, J., Kumar, N. 2010. Personality and Cross-Cultural Adjustment
among Expatriate Assignees in Malaysia. International Business Research. 34, 96- 104.
Schaefer, C., Coyne, J.C., Lazarus, R. S 1981. The health-related functions of social support. Journal of Behaviour Medicine, 4, 381-406.
Selmer, J Leung, A. 2003. Expatriate career intentions of women on foreign assignments and their adjustment. Journal of Managerial Psychology. 183, 244-258.
Shaffer, M.A., Harrison, D.A. 1998. Expatriates’ psychological withdrawal from international assignments: Work, nonwork, and family influences. Personnel
Psychology, 51 , 87-118.
Shaffer, M.A., Harrison, D.A., Gilley, K.M. 1999. Dimensions, determinants, and differences in the expatriate adjustment process. Journal of International Business
Studies, 30 , 557
–581. Suutari, V., Burch, D. 2001. The role of on-site training and support in expatriation:
Existing and necessary host-company practices. Career Development International, 6
6, 298-311. Tan, D Mahoney, J. 2003. Explaining The Utilisation Of Managerial Expatriates From
The perspectives Of Resource-Based, Agency, And Transaction-Costs Theories. Advances in International Management.15
, 179-205. Usunier, J. 1998, “Oral pleasure and expatriate satisfaction: an empirical approach”,
International Business Review, 7 , 89-110.
Van der Bank, M., Rothmann, S. 2006. Correlates of expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment. Management Dynamics, 154, 29
–40
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
69
External Factors Affecting Indonesians for Islamic Spiritual Tourism: A Conceptual Model
FAROOQ HAQ
1
School of Business Administration
Canadian University of Dubai
117781, Dubai, UAE
Farooqcud .ac.ae
ARIEF BUDIMAN
2
Faculty of Economics and Business
Lambung Mangkurat University Banjarmasin,
INDONESIA abudimanunlam.ac.id
Abstract Currently there has been a rise in tourism linked to religious and spiritual motives. This
rise is recognized by tourism operators but the literature and research on this topic is limited. Similarly, Muslims traveling for Islamic spiritual tourism is being recognized
as the most popular niche in today ’s tourism. The research on this Islamic spiritual
tourism is still in its infancy stage. The number of Muslims going for Hajj and Umrah as their spiritual tourism has triggered demarking now, but still the research conducted on
the factors influencing this rise in Islamic spiritual tourism is limited. Indonesia with the highest Muslim population and the most Muslim spiritual tourists identifies a significant
target population to be studied to identify the influencing factors. The uncontrollable or external factors influencing Islamic spiritual tourism for Indonesians is the aim of this
conceptual paper. The literature on Indonesians Muslims travelling for spiritual journeys within their country or overseas was studied in this research. Hence, this conceptual
paper presents a research model which aims to explore external factors that motivate Indonesians who travel for Islamic spiritual tourism. The model comprises of three
external factors, namely health risk, terrorism activities and political unrest. Relationships between these external factors and the research propositions are
discussed. Research implications of the conceptual model are also highlighted in this paper. In the future, these factors will be empirically tested.
Keywords : Islam, tourism, external factors, spiritual journey, Indonesia.
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
70
INTRODUCTION
The market and marketing trends of this century have observed the emergence of global Muslim consumerism and their strong buying power. The rise of the Muslim
markets and buying power can be credited to the modernisation of oil rich Arabian states, growing affluent Muslims in Western countries, impact of democratic regimes in
various Muslim countries and above all the rise of Islamic spirit and spirituality. Historically, the term
‘Islamic’ has been understood to express religious, autocratic, rigid, political, and violent aspects, but recently it has been associated with various
business and marketing practices Alserhan, 2010; Zamani- Farahani Henderson, 2010; Al-Hamarneh Steiner, 2004; Shakry, 2001. Shakry 2001 expressed
‘Islamic’ in the marketing context as linked to the revival of Islamic values,financially
beneficial for Muslims, and enhancing the confidence and identity of Muslims around the world.
A global study conducted by Pew Global Organisation 2005 found that majority of Muslims were more proud to be Muslims rather than citizens of their respective
countries. The terrorist attacks of 9-11 in New York and the following wars on terror are regularly identified as the driving factors behind such shifts in the Islamic world Al-
Hamarneh Steiner, 2004; Scott Jafari, 2010. This re-awareness of the Islamic values and spirituality is clearly
reflected in the Muslim buying patterns and consumerism across the world Alserhan, 2010; Haq Wong, 2011; Battour, Ismail, Battor, 2010. Hence, today
many business organisations and their businesses are adapting the Islamic label or links as key features of their business operations and corporate cultures Temporal,
2011. The remarkable growth of Islamic Banking and Finance is an evident case of the growth and stretch strategy implemented by various banks around the world. The
international tourism industry has also appreciated the Islamic and Muslim market and customers, and hence recently Islamic Tourism was adopted as a new tourism segment
Tajzadeh, 2013; Bhuiyan, Siwar, Ismail, Islam, 2011.
Today ’s Indonesia is moving well towards the high growth rate as well as
economic and social development as supported by all figures and statistics. The regular presidential elections being held in Indonesia, specifically the latest one in
July 2014 indicate credible democratic reforms and progress in the country. A fair study of any market or business indicators will testify the significance of Indonesia as
a future global leader in business, economics, politics and social infrastructure Fealy, 2008. The road for success to reach such goals of this global attainment for
Indonesia, clearly has a strong connection with the influence of Islam in daily lives of Indonesians that is highlighted in all areas including tourism. This paper
is a natural extension of a previous study conducted on the factors motivating Islamic Spiritual Tourism in Indonesians. The previous study explored personal
factors motivating Indonesians, but the current paper attempts to identify external and uncontrollable factors that could be managed better if not overcome by the public and
private tourism operators of Indonesia.
LITERATURE REVIEW 1. Islamic Spiritual Tourism
The recent economic growth experienced by many Muslim countries triggered the global awareness and rise in Islamic Banking and Finance. This global awareness of
Islamic trade and marketing opened the doors of interest in other Islamic products and
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
71
services where the emergence of Islamic tourism is realised Tajzadeh, 2013. This realisation of Islamic tourism appeals towards an urgent need to study tourism
behaviour of Islamic spiritual tourists. Islamic tourism has recently being recognised in the research and business sectors as tourism related to Muslims and non-Muslims
travelling to learn Islam, its spirituality, history, culture and heritage Bhuiyan et al., 2011. The term Islamic spiritual tourism may sound new, but the practice is as old as
the religion Haq Jackson, 2009. The meaning of spiritual tourism is vital in order to conceptualise Islamic spiritual tourism.
The literature concerning to the areas of religious tourism, Islamic tourism and spiritual tourism was called upon to pin point the meaning of Islamic spiritual tourism
and its practice in this study. In this paper the focus was on literature incorporating theoretical discussions about pilgrimage, Hajj, Umrah, rihla, ziyara and halal
tourism. While religion has always motivated spiritual tourism, the literature on religious tourism, for the main part, has been descriptive. Religious tourists and
people visiting holy destinations in specific geographical areas, pilgrimage to shrines, religious tourist attractions and festivals with religious associations have
all been the subject of the descriptive literature. Recognition of the growing significance of Islamic spiritual tourism and its acceptance in academic circles can be
supported by referring to the recent propagation of conferences and special publications for Islamic Marketing, business and tourism.
As mentioned that many business entities around the world are adopting the Islamic or halal element in their products and services Haq, 2014; Wilson, 2012; Alserhan,
2010; Temporal, 2011. The tourism operators are also targeting Muslim consumers and buyers by offering Islamised services Tajzadeh, 2013; Zamani-Farahani
Henderson, 2010. Scott and Jafari 2010 agreed about the growing success of Islamic and halal tourism in satisfying many Muslim consumers in different countries. Islamic
tourism is also accepted to be a successful and sustainable product based on the global economic growth of Muslim consumerism Haq Wong, 2011; Temporal, 2011.
Spiritual tourism has recently been recognised as a type of special interest tourism though people have been practising it long before tourism was recognised as a
separate activity. Although spiritual tourism is in an evolving stage, the current literature provides a definition of a spiritual tourist that can be adopted in this
research project;
‘someone who visits a specific place out of hisher usual environment, with the intention of spiritual meaning andor growth, without overt
religious compulsion, which could be religious, non-religious, sacred or experiential in nature, but within a Divine context, regardless of the main reason for travelling
’ Haq Jackson, 2009, p. 145. This definition covers tourists who visit sacred
places and events seeking the Divine presence, even without classifying themselves as followers of a religion.
The above given definition of a spiritual tourist could be used to identify a Muslim spiritual tourist as someone who travels for his or her spiritual development by seeking
closeness with Allah. For example, Hajj is compulsory for a Muslim who is capable of travelling, but many Muslims who experienced Hajj or Umrah indicated that their
intention was not to fulfil a religious obligation but to seek proximity to Allah, thereby identifying them as Muslim spiritual tourists. This definition lays a
foundation for this study to explore the factors affecting buying behaviour of Muslim spiritual tourists in Indonesia. Muslims are recognised as the most rapidly
growing religious group in the world and Indonesia enjoys the position of the country with most number of Muslims. Haq 2014 suggested from his research that the extension
of the Islamic and halal tourism product that is the Islamic spiritual tourism.
MIICEMA 2014 10-11 November 2014
Hotel Bangi-Putrajaya, Malaysia
72
Among other religious observations, Muslims constitute the largest global spiritual tourism market, which includes the pilgrimage to Makkah known as Hajj and
Umrah. Muslim spiritual tourists from Indonesia again have the largest number of visitors for Hajj and Umrah every year. Spiritual journeys and tourism in Islam could
be divided into three types that are the HajjUmrah, Rihla or Ziyara Haq Wong, 2010; Bhardwaj, 1998; Kessler, 1992. Hajj is the essential, if viable, visit for all
Muslims to the holy city of Makkah, while a Muslim can go for a spiritual trip of Umrah anytime during the year, but heshe can perform Hajj only during the
specified days of the month of Hajj, Zul-Hajj Haq Jackson, 2009; Clingingsmith, Kwaja, Kremer, 2008. A Muslim
’s spiritual journey in search of knowledge, commerce, health or research has been defined as the Rihla
Kessler, 1992. The spiritual journeys of Muslims visiting the mausoleums, mosques or monasteries belonging to spiritual Muslims of the past are called Ziyara Timothy
Iverson, 2006; Bhardwaj, 1998; Kessler, 1992. The Ziyara further branches out into two categories of spiritual travels. First are the journeys to meet Islamic religious and
spiritual scholars, to attend Islamic festivals, events, seminars or gatherings, or to follow in the footsteps of the prophets, Sufis and spiritual celebrities Bhardwaj, 1998.
Second are journeys to holy places in search of spirituality to improve their quality of life Timothy Iverson, 2006; Bhardwaj, 1998.
In this study, any Muslim from Indonesia, travelling for any of the above three types of Islamic travels will be considered as an Islamic spiritual tourist. The research
purpose of this paper is to identify external and uncontrollable factors that could be managed more effectively for the growth of Islamic Spiritual Tourism by the
public and private tourism operators of Indonesia.