30 comprehension, fluency, pronunciation and task completion. There are two
common practices regarding the latter: 1 the total score is summed in average to reflect an overall score or 2 each category is given a different weight sometimes
without the necessity to sum up the total score. O’Malley 1996:65 suggests several steps in developing rubric: 1 Set
criteria of task success 2 Set dimensions of language to be assessed grammar, vocabulary, fluency, pronunciation .etc. 3 Give appropriate weight to each
dimension if omission is possible, do 4 Focus of what test taker can do, instead of what they cannot.
O’Malley’s criteria in speaking assessment is considered the most feasible criteria to be used. Therefore, this research adapted his theory for the speaking
assessment criteria.
b. The Principles of English Language Teaching
Brown 2001 proposes the twelve language teaching principles. They are automaticity, meaningful learning, and the anticipation of reward, intrinsic
motivation, strategic investment, self-confidence, risk taking, the language culture-connection, the native language effect, interlanguage, and communicative
competence. In relation to this, Nation and Macalister 2010 mention the twenty
principles in language teaching. They are divided into three borders which are content and sequencing, format and presentation, as well as monitoring and
assessment. In content and sequencing the teachers need to consider 1 frequency;
31 2 strategies and autonomy; 3 spaced retrieval; 4 languages system; 5 keep
moving forward; 6 teachability; 7 learning burden; and 8 interference. In format and presentation, the teachers need to take into account: 1 motivation; 2
four strands; 3 comprehensible input; 4 fluency; 5 output; 6 deliberate learning; 7 time on task; 8 depth of processing; 9 integrative motivation; as well
as 10 learning style. Ultimately, in monitoring and assessment the teachers need to deal with: 1 on-going needs and environment analysis and 2 feedback.
Overall these two kinds of principles proposed almost the same thing. Their goal is to make the ELT processes ideal in the classroom and to help the students
to progress. From the principles by the two experts, it can be seen that the students in the classroom is the subject of learning. They are the central of learning.
Therefore, the teaching in the classroom should really follow the students’ phase.
No matter which principle is chosen, a good English teacher should grasp them with good comprehension. Teachers could also combine or select points which are
necessary for them.
c
.
The Four Strands of Teaching and Learning English
Nation and Newton 2009 mention a well-balanced early listening and speaking lesson. It relates to the four strands of the language teaching and
learning. They are meaning-focused input, meaning-focused output, language- focused output; and fluency development. The more detailed explanation is cited
as follow.
32 1
Meaning-focused input
. The learners engage in dialogue with the teacher, do activities like listen and do, grids, interview activities, and listening to
simple stories. 2
Meaning-focused output
. The learners engage in dialogue with the teacher, do activities like descriptions, a variety of questioning activities like
asking by numbers and hints, and guided activities. 3
Language-focused learning
. The teacher helps the learners with pronunciation, memorising useful phrases and sentences, and substitution
tables. 4
Fluency development
. Memorised phrases and sentences are given repeated practice with an emphasis on reaching a normal speed of
production. By referring to the four strands language learning, it is noted that the role of
the teacher is very important in the meaning-focused input, meaning-focused output, and the language focused learning. The teacher should really prepare the
input and activity that will enable the students to produce the texts. However, the teacher should also develop the students’ autonomy so that they could handle the
fluency development.
d. The Overview of Communicative Language Teaching Methodology
