Developing teaching strategies based on reflective pedagogy for integrated reading and writing

DEVELOPING TEACHING STRATEGIES BASED ON REFLECTIVE PEDAGOGY FOR INTEGRATED READING AND WRITING

A THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

By:

Anastasia Beni Indrawati Student Number: 051214072

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

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DEVELOPING TEACHING STRATEGIES BASED ON REFLECTIVE PEDAGOGY FOR INTEGRATED READING AND WRITING

A THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

By:

Anastasia Beni Indrawati Student Number: 051214072

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

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My thesis is dedicated to: My beloved Bapak and Ibu

vii ABSTRACT

Indrawati, Anastasia Beni. 2009. Developing Teaching Strategies Based on Reflective Pedagogy for Integrated Reading and Writing. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.

Reading and writing are a part of English lesson that is taught in Senior High School. In fact, nowadays, there are many Senior High School students who still have poor reading and writing proficiencies. The problems in reading comprehension give bad impacts to the students’ writing proficiency. The students lack writing skill because of their poor reading proficiency since those two skills have strong relation. Unfortunately, the teaching of reading and writing is still problematic since the English teacher does not apply particular teaching strategies to enhance the students reading and writing skills. Considering that, this study is then aimed at developing teaching strategies based on Reflective pedagogy for integrated reading and writing. The design teaching strategies are completed with the materials for the tenth grade students of SMA Negeri 11 Yogyakarta. The design teaching strategies are expected to help the English teacher to teach reading and writing skills and the students to solve the proble ms they encountered and further enhance reading and writing skills of them.

There was one question formulated in the problem formulation i.e. What is the designed teaching strategies based on Reflective pedagogy for integrated reading and writing?

Some steps of Educational Research and Development (R & D) method were employed to solve the problems identified this study. These steps were (1) Research and Information Collecting, (2) Planning, (3) Development of Preliminary Form of Product, (4) Preliminary Field Testing, and (5) Main Product Revision.

To answer the research question, I employed the adaptation of Kemp’s and Yalden’s instructional design models as the realization of Research and Development (R&D) method. I adapt three steps of Kemp’s model. They are determining goals, topics and purposes, stating learning objectives and selecting teaching learning activities and materials. I also take two important stage s of Yalden’s model which could not be found in Kemp’s model, namely needs survey and designing the teaching strategies. In brief, I set seven stages resulting from the adaptation and combination of two instructional design models namely (1) Conducting Need Survey, (2) Determining Goals, Topics, General Purposes, (3) Stating Learning Objectives, (4) Selecting Teaching Learning Activities and Materials, (5) Designing the Teaching Strategies, (6) Evaluating, (7) Revising.

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In this study, the data obtained through needs survey was served as the basis to develop the teaching strategies. Once being completed, the designed teaching strategies were evaluated by some English teachers and lecturer. The evaluation was described in terms of central tendency. The data showed that the means ranged from 3. 6 to 4. 6, indicating that the designed teaching strategies was acceptable and well-developed, although some revision was necessary. The evaluation was then emp loyed as the basis for revision.

The designed teaching strategies based on Reflective pedagogy for integrated reading and writing consists of sixteen strategies i.e. (1) Asking Questions to Clarify, (2) Predicting, (3) Activating Background Knowledge, (4) Checking Comprehension, (5) Discussion, (6) Listening, (7) Writing, (8) Independent Reading, (9) Guided Reading, (10) Retelling, (11) Understanding Text Organization, (12) Games, (13) Getting the Main Idea, (14) Summarizing, (15) Evaluating, (16) Student-self Evaluation.

The designed teaching strategies was completed with the materials consisting of eight units i.e. Food & Things Around Us (unit 1), Your Truly Diary (unit 2), Moments You’ll Never Forget (unit 3), Selling Products & Services (unit 4), Your Great Event (unit 5), How to Make it…? (unit 6), Nice Holiday (unit 7), and Legend & Myth (around the world) (unit 8).

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ABSTRAK

Indrawati, Anastasia Beni. 2009. Developing Teaching Strategies Based on Reflective Pedagogy for Integrated Reading and Writing. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Reading dan writing merupakan bagian dari pelajaran bahasa Inggris yang diajarkan di Sekolah Menengah Atas. Kenyataannya, saat ini, ada banyak siswa SMA yang masih memiliki permasalahan untuk reading dan writing. Masalah- masalah dalam reading comprehension yang dihadapi oleh siswa memberikan dampak buruk terhadap kemampuan writing mereka. Kekurangan kemampuan siswa untuk writing disebabkan kemampuan reading siswa yang kurang baik. Hal ini terjadi karena reading dan writing memiliki hubungan yang sangat kuat. Namun demikian, sangat disayangkan bahwa pengajaran reading dan writing masih ada kendala karena guru bahasa Inggris tidak menerapkan strategi mengajar tertentu untuk mempertinggi kemampuan reading dan writing siswa. Memperhatikan hal tersebut, penelitian ini bertujuan mengembangkan strategi mengajar berdasarkan Reflective pedagogy untuk pegajaran integrasi reading dan writing. Desain strategi mengajar ini dilengkapi dengan materi untuk siswa kelas X SMA Negeri 11 Yogyakarta. Desain strategi mengajar ini diharapkan dapat membantu guru dalam mengajar reading dan writing dan siswa diharapkan dapat memecahkan masalah serta meningkatkan kemampuan reading dan writing mereka.

Dalam penelitian ini, terdapat satu pertanyaan dalam perumusan masalah yaitu Bagaimanakah desain strategi mengajar berdasarkan Reflective pedagogy untuk pengajaran integrasi reading dan writing.

Beberapa langkah dalam metode Educational Research and Development (R & D) digunakan untuk menjawab pertanyaan dalam penelitian ini. Langkah-langkah tersebut adalah (1) Penelitian dan pengumpulan informasi, (2) Perencanaan, (3) Pengembangan bentuk awal produk, (4) Pengujian awal di lapangan, dan (5) Revisi produk.

Untuk menjawab pertanyaan dalam perumusan masalah, penulis mengadaptasi model perencanaan instruksional yang dikembangkan oleh Kemp dan Yalden sebagai dasar pengembangan strategi mengajar. Penulis mengadaptasi tiga langkah dari model perancangan instruksional Kemp. Langkah-langlah tersebut

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adalah perumusan tujuan, topik, dan tujuan umum, perumusan tujuan khusus, dan pengembangan materi pembelajaran. Penulis juga mengadaptasi dua langkah penting dari model perancangan instruksional Yalden yang tidak bisa ditemukan di model perancangan instruksional Kemp yaitu Survei Analsia Kebutuhan dan Pengembangan strategi pengajaran. Singkatnya, penulis menggunakan 7 langkah dari hasil pengadaptasian dan pengkombinasian dari dua model perancangan instruksional yaitu (1) Survei Analisa Kebutuhan, (2) Perumusan tujuan, topik dan tujuan umum, (3) Perumusan tujuan khusus, (4) Pengembangan kegiatan dan materi pembelajaran, (5) Pengembangan strategi pengajaran, (6) Pengevaluasian, (7) Perevisian.

Dalam penelitian ini, data yang diperoleh melalui survei analisa kebutuhan siswa digunakan sebagai dasar pengembangan strategi mengajaran. Strategi mengajar yang telah selesai dirancang kemudian dievaluasi oleh para guru dan dosen bahasa Inggris. Hasil analisa data tersebut menunjukkan bahwa nilai rata-rata berkisar antara 3,6 – 4,6 dalam skala 1 – 5. Berdasarkan data tersebut, dapat disimpulkan bahwa strategi mengajar yang dirancang telah dikembangkan dengan baik dan dapat diterima. Meskipun demikian, revisi masih perlu dilaksanakan. Data yang diperoleh dari hasil evaluasi kemudian digunakan sebagai acuan untuk revisi.

Rancangan strategi mengajar berdasarkan Reflective pedagogy untuk pengajaran integrasi reading dan writing terdiri dari enam belas strategi mengajar yaitu 1) Asking Questions to Clarify, (2) Predicting, (3) Activating Background Knowledge, (4) Checking Comprehension, (5) Discussion, (6) Listening, (7) Writing, (8) Independent Reading, (9) Guided Reading, (10) Retelling, (11) Understanding Text Organization, (12) Games, (13) Getting the Main Idea, (14) Summarizing, (15) Evaluating, (16) Student-self Evaluation.

Rancangan strategi megajar juga dilengkapi dengan materi yang terdiri dari delapan unit yaitu Food & Things Around Us (unit 1), Your Truly Diary (unit 2), Moments You’ll Never Forget (unit 3), Selling Products & Services (unit 4), Your Great Event (unit 5), How to Make it…? (unit 6), Nice Holiday (unit 7), and Legend & Myth (around the world) (unit 8).

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I would like to express my greatest gratitude to the Almighty Jesus Christ for His love, grace and blessings in my life so that I was able to finish my thesis. I always believe that there is nothing impossible in Him.

My sincere gratitude goes to my sponsor, Gregorius Punto Aji, S.Pd., M. Hum., for his willingness to share his knowledge and expertise. He has been extraordinary in his invaluable supports, guidance, suggestions and patience during my thesis accomplishment. I am deeply grateful to all the lecturers of the English Language Education Study Program for guiding and teaching me during my study in Sanata Dharma University. In addition, I sincerely thank Christina Kristiyani, S.Pd.,M. Pd., for her willingness to evaluate my designed teaching strategies. In addition, I warmly thank Sr. Margaret O’ Donohue FCJ, for kindly spending her precious hours proofreading my thesis. Furthermore, I would also like to say thanks to all the secretariat staff of the English La nguage Study Program, Mbak Danik and

Mbak Tari for always helping me with the administrative matters. My special thanks are addressed to all my classmates: Feby, Retno, Indri, Ayuni, Intan, There, Ari for sharing the joy and spirit during my study in this university.

My special gratitude also goes to the headmaster of SMA Negeri 11 Yogyakarta, Dra. Dwi Rini Wulandari, M.M., for allowing me to conduct my research there. My special thanks go to the English teachers Nuny Baswari, S.Pd.,

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and Murtiningsih, S.Pd., for assisting me and giving me guidance, all of the grade X studentsand all of the staff who have helped me a lot.

My thanks also go to all REALIA staff especially Mbak Pupu, Mbak TJ,

Mbak Sitta, and Bu Diah. I thank them for giving me a great opportunity to develop myself. My special thanks is addressed to all my lovely best friends in Beo 45 boarding house especially Agata Pepi Yerinta and Irmina Budi Utari for their love, support, friendship, and all the happy and sad times we have spent together. I hope our friendship will be everlasting.

My deepest gratitude is addressed to my beloved parents, Methodeus Mardjono and Theresia Kusharyati. I thank them for their prayer, love, support, advice, patience they have given to me. My gratitude also goes to my lovely sisters, Natalia Devian Indrasusanti, Christina Beti Prasetya Ningsih and Bernadeta Novi Andriyani for their love, support, advice, and the wonderful moments we have shared together. Last but not least, I am grateful to Petrus Dika Prasetyo Wibisono for giving me support and advice as well as teaching me the meaning of life. He has showed me that life is not a matter of how long we exist, but it is a matter of what we have done. I love them very much.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE……… i

APPROVAL PAGES………. ii

DEDICATION PAGE……….. iv

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY……… v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………. vi

ABSTRACT……….. vii

ABSTRAK……… ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS………. Xiii LIST OF FIGURES………. xvi

LIST OF TABLES……… xvii

LIST OF APPENDICES……….. xviii

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION……… 1

A. Research Background……….. 1

B. Problem Formulation……… 4

C. Problem Limitation………... 4

D. Research Objectives………. 5

E. Research Benefits……….. 5

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CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE………. 9

A. Theoretical Description……… 9

1. Research and Development Theory………... 9

2. Instructional Design Theory ………. 11

a) Kemp Design Model……… 11

b)Yalden Design Model……….. 16

3. Reflective Pedagogy……….. 19

4. Theory of Teaching Reading……….. 30

5. Theory of Teaching Writing………... 35

6. The Integrated of Teaching Reading and Writing……… 36

7. The 2006 Edition of School-Based Curriculum……… 43

B. Theoretical Framework……….. 43

CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY……… 48

A. Research Method………. 48

B. Research Participants………... 51

C. Data Gathering Technique………... 53

D. Research Instruments……… 55

E. Data Analysis Technique………. 56

F. Research Procedure………. 59

CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION………….. 63

A. Needs and Lacks on which The Designed was Developed on Reflective pedagogy………. 63

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B. The Elements of the Design ………... 66

1. The Goals, Topic and General Purposes………. 66

2. The Learning Objectives………. 70

3. The Teaching Learning Activities……….... 74

C. Feedbacks and Revision………... 80

1. Feedbacks from the Participants………. 80

2. Revision of the Product……….... 85

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS……… . 88

A. Conclusion………... . 88

B. Suggestions………. . 90

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Kemp’s Instructional Design Model………. 16

Figure 2: Yalden’s Instructional Design Model ………. 19

Figure 3: Ignatian Pedagogy……….. 20

Figure 2: The Writing Situation……… 35

Figure 5: The Procedural Steps in Designing the Teaching Strategies... 61  

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1: The Data Needed……….. 53

Table 3.2: Degree of Agreement……….. 57

Table 3.3: The Descriptive Statistics of Participants’ Opinion (Blank).. 57

Table 3.4: The Assessment of Central Tendency……… 58

Table 3.5: The Description of the Research Participants’ (Blank)…….. 59

Table 4.1: The Themes & Topic in the Design……….. 67

Table 4.2: The Basic Competencies………. 68

Table 4.3: The Indicators……… 71

Table 4.4: The Teaching Activities in the Design………... 75

Table 4.5: The Description of the Research Participants……….. 82

   

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Letter of Permission……….. 95

Appendix 2: Interview Guideline and Transcript……….. 99

Appendix 3: The Questionnaire for the Design Evaluation ………. 105

Appendix 4: Syllabus of SMA Negeri 11 Yogyakarta ………. 108

1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the introduction of the study. This includes the research background, problem formulation, problem limitation, research objectives, research benefits, and definition of terms.

A. Research Background

In this globalization era, the English language plays an important role in our lives. English is an International language which many people around the world tend to use it. The broader use of English as the International language forces many people especially students to learn English more and more. One of the effective ways to learn English is through reading. Reading is a beneficial activity that is easy to do. When students read many kinds of reading materials, they should comprehend the text so that they could get the messages of the text. By means of reading comprehension, the students could broaden their knowledge and see the advancement of this world.

It is interesting to note that reading as a beneficial activity will also stimulate students to improve their writing ability. When they have plenty of ideas and good grammar which they know from doing reading comprehension, they can improve their writing skill. Reading and writing have a strong relation. Both of them are dealing with written text.

Reading and writing skills are a part of English lesson that is taught in Senior High School. Nowadays, many Senior High Schools in Indonesia have divided English class according to the skills. This fact is based on what I have experienced in conducting study task or PPL (Program Pengalaman Lapangan) in SMA Negeri 11 Yogyakarta. In fact, there are many Senior High School students who still have poor reading and writing proficiencies. Most of them do not know how to read the text effectively. They just read the text without knowing exactly what they have read. As consequence, they often lack time for the reading activity and they have not got the essential message of the text. It is because they do not comprehend the text and just read it without really understanding what the writers want to convey. These phenomenons would have bad impact on the students’ writing proficiency. They lack writing skill because of poor reading proficiency since those two skills have a strong relation.

It is very interesting to note that actually, nowadays, many students realize the importance of reading comprehension. However, most of them state that in fact, they still face the number of reading problems that become the obstacles for them to comprehend the text. This phenomenon, makes them lose the advantage of reading comprehension activity.

When the students read text, it is important for them to comprehend the text to get the message and to improve their knowledge. Then, because of the importance of comprehension in reading activity, the students should know their problems as early as possible. When they can identify their problems, they can anticipate them and overcome them so that they will get more benefits by doing

reading activity since this skill would also influence other skills especially writing. According to Raimes, Ann (1983: 50), “The more our students read, the more they become familiar with the vocabulary, idioms, sentence, patterns, organizational flow, and cultural assumption of native speakers of the language.”

This phenomenon of facing reading comprehension and writing problems encountered by Senior High School students demand the teacher to develop the teaching strategies for integrated reading and writing. Therefore, this research would develop teaching strategies based on Reflective Pedagogy for integrated reading and writing. This research also would see how far the students’ understanding of what they have read by asking them to read something which is based on the topic. Why is Reflective Pedagogy? Reflective Pedagogy has power for language teaching. It is a paradigm with inherent potential to go beyond mere theory to become a practical tool and effective instrument for making a difference in the way we teach and in the way our students learn.

Reflective Pedagogy speaks to the teaching-learning process, that addresses the teacher-learner relationship, and that has practical meaning and application for the classroom. The primary focus on Reflective Pedagogy remains just that pedagogical practice in classrooms. The practical expression of Reflective Pedagogy describes five basic principles in developing teaching learning activities. Those are: Context, Experience, Reflection, Action, and Evaluation.

By means of integrated reading and writing which are taught by the English teacher uses strategies based on Reflective Pedagogy Learning Theory,

the students will get many advantages. In fact, reading comprehension plays an important role in the development of English ability that has a link with other English competencies. Generally, reading comprehension is not only improving someone’s knowledge but it will also stimulate students in writing and motivating them to read. Therefore, the students could improve their reading and writing proficiencies.

B. Problem Formulation

This research is limited and only focused on this following problem “What is the design of teaching strategies based on Reflective Pedagogy for integrated reading and writing?

C. Problem Limitation

This research is a research in English Language Teaching (ELT) area that investigates the students’ problems of reading comprehension. This research is limited to design teaching learning strategies based on Reflective Pedagogy for integrated reading and writing.

D. Research Objectives

The objective of this research is to find out the teaching-strategies based on Reflective Pedagogy for integrated reading and writing.

E. Research Benefits

The teaching strategies based on Reflective Pedagogy for integrated reading and writing give a greater opportunity for the students to have different ways in their style for mastering reading and writing skills and also for the teacher to teach reading and writing. The strategies would encourage the students because before comprehending the material, the students would be given the context of the material. Then, the students would learn through ways that they are interested in, these would encourage the students to be more proactive because after comprehending the material which is supported by their experience, the students will do a kind of reflection which would be followed by some actions relates to the topic. In action step, the students would be asked to write something based on what they have read. Therefore, these teaching strategies would really help the students to see how far their understanding after conducting reading activity by applying the knowledge which they get through writing. Therefore, this study is expected to give positive contribution to English Language Teaching, especially for the English teachers, the students, and other researchers.

For English teachers, this study provides the benefits of teaching reading and writing based on Reflective Pedagogy for the tenth grade students of Senior High School. By understanding the study, the English teachers may have more references of teaching- learning strategies that can be applied in class. It is also hoped that Senior High School English teachers may broaden their knowledge about English language teaching through the study.

Practically, the design of teaching strategies would help the students especially students in SMA Negeri 11 Yogyakarta by the interaction of the learner with experience. The teaching strategies also would help them to really understand the topic by doing a kind of reflection which would accommodate them to do some actions dealing with the topic. Therefore, the students would be more active in learning the English language through reading and writing.

For other researchers, this study would be useful as the reference to conduct research and write scientific paper related to the topic. It also gives a description about developing teaching strategies based on Reflective Pedagogy for integrated reading and writing. Through the study, other researchers may gain beneficial information that can be used to support their research.

F. Definition of Terms

To avoid misunderstanding and misconception, it is important to have the right of supporting perception of the main terms used in this research:

1. Reading

a. According to Chambers and Lowry (1975: 114) reading is more than merely recognizing the words for which certain combinations of letters bring about a correct recall. It includes the whole thinking responses, feeling and defining some need, identifying a solution for meeting the need, selecting from alternatives means, experimenting with choices, rejecting or retaining the chosen route, and devising some means of evaluating the results.

b. In addition, Burns (1984: 10) explains that reading is a thinking process. In order to comprehend a reading selection thoroughly, a person must be able to use the information to make inferences and read critically and creatively. In this research, reading, then, is defined as a complex act of constructing meaning that involve the thinking process activity to link the text with the reader’s existing knowledge.

2. Writing

Rober & Nancy (1985) states that writing is a way of thinking as well as a means of communication, and one of the things it can be used to think about is yourself

3. The students

The students in this research are students of SMA Negeri 11 Yogyakarta Grade X. In Indonesia, the students age between fourteen up to sixteen years of age. In this study, tenth grade students is a group of students age between fourteen up to sixteen years old who are now learning in the tenth grade of SMA Negeri 11 Yogyakarta.

4. Instructional Design

Instructional Design is a process in improving a variety of instructional materials to fulfill the purpose and it has a certain model.

Barry and King (1997), L states that much of a teacher's success in the classroom is hinged on their use of teaching strategies, or to put it another way, their approach to their teaching, how they implement instructions, how they teach, how they communicate, and how they deliver information, how they communicate data to students.

9 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter is intended to review some theories related to the issue of the study and to formulate the theoretical framework. Therefore, I divide this chapter into two major sub-headings namely theoretical description and theoretical framework. The theoretical description provides the theoretical issues related to the problem, whereas the theoretical framework explains the thread of the theories to formulate the orientation of the study.

A. Theoretical Description

The study aims to develop teaching strategies based on Reflective pedagogy for integrated reading and writing. Therefore, there are some theories discussed in this part, namely Research and Development theory, Instructional Design Theory, Reflective Pedagogy, Theory of Teaching Reading, Theory of Teaching Writing, The Integrated of Teaching Reading and Writing and The 2006 edition of School- Based Curriculum.

1. Research and Development Theory

Borg and Gall (1983: 772) explains that education Research and

Development (R&D) is a process used to develop and validate educational products. The steps of this process are usually referred to as the R & D cycle, which consists of studying research findings pertinent to the product to be

developed, developing the product based on these findings, field testing in the setting where it will be used eventually, and revising it to correct the deficiencies found in the field testing stage. In contrast, the goal of educational research is not to develop products but rather to discover new knowledge (through basic research) or to answer specific questions about practical problems.

The major steps in the R&D cycles based on Borg & Gall are:

a. Research and information collecting

This stage includes review of literature, classroom observations, and preparation of report of state of the art.

b. Planning

It includes defining skills, reviewing the English syllabus, determining goals, topic, and general purposes.

c. Develop Preliminary form of Product

It includes preparation of instructional materials, handbooks, and evaluation devices.

d. Preliminary Field Testing

It can be conducted by using interview, observational and questionnaire data collected and analyzed.

e. Main Product Revision

Revision of product as suggested by the preliminary field-test results.

f. Main Field Testing

Conducted in 5 to 15 schools with 30 to 100 subjects Quantitative data on subjects’ pre course and post course performance are collected. Result is

evaluated with respect to course objectives and is compared with control group data, when appropriate.

g. Operational Product Revision

Revision of product as suggested by main field-tests result.

h. Operational Field Testing

Conducted in 10 to 30 schools involving 40 to 200 subjects. Interview, observational and questionnaire data collected and analyzed.

i. Final Product Revision

Revision of product as suggested by operational field-test result.

j. Dissemination and implementation

The contribution of R&D in our education is to finding generated by basic and applied research and uses them to build tested products that are ready for operational use in the schools.

2. Instructional Design Theory

In the theory of instructional design there are many models of instructional design. Each model has some stages which can be used as a step-by-step guidance to develop the teaching strategies.

a. Kemp Design Model

The Kemp (1977) design model takes a holistic approach to instructional design. Virtually all factors in the learning environment are taken into consideration including subject analysis, learner characteristics, learning objectives, teaching activities, resources (computers, books, etc.), support services

and evaluation. The process is interactive and the design is subject to constant revision. The immediate feel of being interactive and inclusive, and particularly the fact that the central focus is the learner needs and goals are the strengths of this model. There is also a focus on content analysis, as there would be in any educational design and a focus on support and service, which is not present in other ID models.

The benefit of using Kemp’s model is that the method can be applied to any educational level – elementary, secondary, or college. It can be best applied first to individual topics and then to units and to complete courses. When the instructional designer and teachers have become fully familiar with the design plan, it may be applied to the efforts of an entire department or grade level (Kemp, 1977:8).

The plan is designed to supply answers to three questions, which may be considered the essential elements of instructional technology: what must be learned? (objectives); what procedures and resources will work best to reach the desired learning levels? (activities and resources); and how will we know when the required learning has taken place? (evaluation) (Kemp 1977:8).

The plan consists of eight parts. Each part is elaborated below:

1) Considering goals, and then listing topics, stating purposes for teaching each topic.

According to Kemp, instructional design planning starts with recognition of the goals and topics. Those goals may be derived from three sources: society, students, and topics. Within curriculum areas or courses, topics are chosen for

study, for each of which the teacher explicitly expresses the general statement of purposes.

2) Enumerating the important characteristics of the learners

According to Kemp, teacher should recognize and respect the student as individual learner. Even ideally each person should be assisted in pursuing learning at his or her own pace and with his or her own selection of learning experiences and materials. Knowing the learner characteristics, the teacher must obtain information of the learners’ capabilities, needs, and interests. There should affect the emphases in instructional planning, including the information the determination of the topics and the level at which topics are introduced, the choice and sequencing of objectives, the depth of treatment, and the variety of learning activities.

3) Specifying the learning objectives

This step is specifying the learning objectives to be achieved in terms of measurable student behavioral outcomes. Kemp states that this part is the difficult part but it is essential. Learning objective is concerning with learning as the outcome of instruction. Learning requires active effort by the learner. Thus, all objectives must be stated in terms of activities that will best promote learning. Objective tell students what goals they must attain, what ideas and skills will be included in the upcoming instruction, and what types of behavior will be expected during evaluation

4) Listing the Subject Content

Subject content comprises the selection and organizing the specific knowledge (facts and information), skills (step-by step procedures, conditions, and requirements) and attitudinal factors of any topic. In selecting subject content, Kemp offers four questions. Those are: What specifically must be taught or learned in this topic? What facts, concepts, and principles relate to this topic? What steps are involved in necessary procedures relating to this topic? And what techniques are required in performing essential skills? When content is being selected, consideration might also be closely related to the objectives and the students’ needs.

5) Developing pre-assessment

This assessment is to determine the students’ background and present a level of knowledge about the topic. In order to plan learning activities for which students are prepared and at the same time on things they already know, Kemp suggests to find out specifically to what extend each student has acquired the necessary prerequisites for studying the topic and what the student may have already mastered about the subject to be studied. By the pre-assessment, he added, the objectives of student may have already achieved.

6) Selecting teachings learning activities and instructional resources

This will treat the subject content so students will accomplish the objectives. In selecting teaching/ learning activities and instructional resources, Kemp argues that there is no formula for matching activities to objectives. Teachers need to know the strengths and weaknesses of alternative methods and

of various materials. Then they can make their selections in terms of the student characteristics and needs that will best serve the objectives they have established. 7) Coordinating such support services as budget, personnel, facilities, equipment,

and schedules

This activity is to carry out the instructional plan. According to Kemp, the support services required to implement the design plan are: budget, facilities, equipment, time, and schedules and coordinating with other activities. He adds, there are many interrelated elements in any instructional situation, and each needs careful consideration during the appropriate planning step. Support services must be considered at the same time instructional plans are being made and materials being selected. In addition, consideration must be given to coordinating the planned program with other operational aspect of institution (student’s schedules, guidance services, and so forth)

8) Evaluation

Evaluating students’ learning in terms of their accomplishment of objectives, with a view to revising and reevaluating any phases of the plan that need improvement. Kemp argues that evaluation is the payoff step in the instructional design plan. The teachers are ready to measure the learning outcomes relating to the objectives. The objectives indicate what the evaluation should be. By stating them clearly, teachers have assured measuring directly what they are teaching. At present, he adds, most teachers prepare a final examination for a topic, unit, or course as the teaching time draws to a close. The teacher usually

then develops essay or objective questions that refer to the subject content covered in the course or unit, making little reference to the objectives.

Figure 1: Kemp’s Instructional Design Model (Kemp, 1977: 9)

According to Kemp, the plan is a flexible process. There is interdependence among the eight elements; decisions relating to one may affect others. The planners can start with whichever element they are ready to start with and then move back and forth to the other steps. The sequence and order are the planners’ choice.

b. Yalden Design Model

Yalden offers a communicative syllabus in designing a set of instructional materials. The kind of syllabus that incorporates a consideration of all ten

components is increasingly referred to as communicative (Yalden, 1987: 87). The principle on which a syllabus is structured is different from those for selecting the linguistic content to be included in it. The teacher has to ensure that the learners acquire the ability to communicate.

Yalden (1987) presents the stages to design a communicative syllabus. The model consists of seven stages, namely:

1) Needs Survey

This stage is necessary to gather information about the learners such as personal needs, motivation, and learners’ characteristic. Needs surveys is conducted to identify as much as possible of the learners’ need in the designing of the program in order to establish acceptable objectives.

2) Description about the purpose

The result of the need survey will guide the syllabus designer to clarify the purpose of the language program. The description of purpose is prepared in term of: (1) the characteristic of the students, and (2) the skills of the students on entry to and on exit from the program.

3) Selection and development of syllabus type

It is in terms of proto syllabus and physical constraint on the program (Yalden, 1987: 96). The syllabus does not only concern with anything to be taught and the way to do it. It also concerns with the teaching materials such as textbook and exercise as the realization of syllabus itself.

4) The photo syllabus production

In this stage, the content of the syllabus will be decided. It means the description of language use to be covered in the program (Yalden, 1987: 96). The designer specified the description of the content of the syllabus. Selection and combination of contents are designed in line with the type of syllabus.

5) The pedagogical production

Pedagogical syllabus represents a plan to implement the content of the language teaching/learning at the classroom level. The language program designer, in this step, should realize the syllabus in the form of teaching-learning materials and testing approach.

6) The development and implementation of classroom procedures

In this stage, the designer is supposed to develop the classroom procedure such as selection of exercise types and teaching techniques, preparation of lesson plans, and preparation of the weekly schedules. Yalden also states about the teacher training in this stage, such as creation of teaching materials.

7) Evaluation

The evaluation has two broad aspects; those are the students in the program and the teaching as well as the over-all design. Then this is labeled as the recycling stage because the whole cycle can be begun again at this point.

Those stages represent operations for the sake of clarity in Yalden’s model

Figure 2: Yalden’s Instructional Design Model (Yalden, 1987: 88)

3 Reflective Pedagogy

According to Kolvenbach Peter Hans, S.J., (1993: 6), pedagogy is the way in which teachers accompany learners in their development. Pedagogy must include a world view and a vision of the ideal human person to be educated. These provide the goal, the end towards which all aspects of an educational tradition are directed. They also provide criteria for choices of means to be used in the process of education.

Reflective Pedagogy which is also called Ignatian Pedagogy since it’s derived from Saint Ignasius Loyola is intended not only for formal education provides in Jesuit schools, colleges and universities, but it can be helpful in every form of educational service. It is actually inspired by the experience of St. Ignatius recorded in the Spiritual Excercises, in Part IV of the Constitutions of the Society of Jesus, and in the Jesuit Ratio Studiorum. (Kolvenbach, 1993:2)

Ignatian Pedagogy is inspired by faith. But even those who do not share this faith can gather valuable experiences from this document because the pedagogy inspired by St. Ignatius is profoundly human and consequently

Needs Survey Descrip tion of Purpose Selection / Develop- ment of Syllabus Product- ion of a

Proto-Syllabus Product- ion of Pedagogi-cal Syllabus Dev. & Imple- mentation of Classroom Procedur-es Evalua-tion

universal. This pedagogy from its beginnings has been eclectic in selection of methods for teaching and learning. (Kolvenbach, 1993: 3)

Ignatian Pedagogy assumes that worldview and moves one step beyond suggesting more explicit ways in which Ignatian values can be incarnated in the teaching learning process. An Ignatian paradigm suggests a host of ways in which teachers might accompany their students in order to facilitate learning and growth through encounters with truth and explorations of human meaning. It is a paradigm with inherent potential for going beyond mere theory to become a practical tool and effective instrument for making a difference in the way we teach and in the way our students learn. The model of experience, reflection and action is not solely an interesting idea worthy of considerable discussion, nor is it simply an intriguing proposal calling for lengthy debate (Kolvenbach, 1993: 18-19).

Figure 3: Ignatian Pedagogy

Action Reflection

A critically important note of the Ignatian paradigm is the introduction of reflection as an essential dynamic. For centuries, education was assumed to consist primarily of accumulated knowledge gained from lectures and demonstations. Students experience a lesson clearly presented and thoroughly explained and the teacher calls for subsequent action on the part of students whereby they demonstrate, frequently reciting from memory, that what was communicated has, indeed, been sucessfully absorbed. Research over the past two decades has proven time and again, that effective learning occurs through the interaction of the learner with experience. As a teaching model, it is seriously deficient for two reasons:

1.Experience is expected to move beyond rote knowledge to the

development of the more complex learning skills of understanding, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.

2.If learning were to stop there, it would lack the component of

REFLECTION where students are impelled to consider the human meaning and significance of what they study and to integrate that meaning as responsible learners who grow as persons of competence, conscience and compassion. (Kolvenbach, 1993: 20-21)

A comprehensive Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm must consider the context of learning as well as the more explicitly pedagogical process. In addition, it should point to ways to encourage openess to growth even after the student has completed any individual learning cycle. Thus five steps are involved:

CONTEXT; EXPERIENCE; REFLECTION; ACTION; EVALUATION. (Kolvenbach, 1993: 21-22)

a. Context of Learning

Ignatius makes judgements about readiness to begin, whether a person

would profit from the complete Exercises or an abbreviated experience. The

experiences of the retreatant should always give shape and context to the exercises that are being used. It is the responsibility of the director, therefore, not only to select those exercises that seem most worthwhile and suitable but to modify and adjust them in order to make them directly applicable to the retreatant. Ignatius encourages exercises to become as familiar as possible before-hand with the life experience of the retreatant so that, during the retreat itself, the director will be better equipped to assist the retreatant in discerning movements. (Kolvenbach, 1993:22)

Personal care and concern for the individual, which is a hallmark of Jesuit education, requires that the life experience, always the starting point in an Ignatian Pedagogy. We must know as mush as we can about the actual context within which teaching and learning take place. As teachers, therefore, we need to understand the world of the student, including the ways in which family, friends, peers, youth culture and mores as well as social pressures, school life, politics, economics, religion, media, art, music, and other realities impact that world and affect the student.

Therefore, teachers as well as other members of the school community should take account of:

1) The real context of a student’s life which includes family, peers, social situations, the educational institution itself, politics, media and other realities. All of these have an impact on the student for better or worse. From time to time it will be useful and important to encourage students to reflect on the contextual factors that they experience, and how they affect their attitudes, perceptions, judgments, choices.

2) The socio-economic, political and cultural context within which a

student grows can seriously affect his or her growth as a person for others. 3) The institutional environment of the school or learning center, i.e the

complex and often subtle network of norms, expectations and especially relationships that create the atmosphere of school life. Concretely, concern for quality learning, trust, respect for others despite differences of opinion, caring, forgiveness and some clear manifestation of the school’s belief in the Trancendent distinguish a school environment that assists integral human growth. Thus, alumnorum cura personalis, i.e., a genuine love and personal care for each of our students, is essential for an environment that fosters the Ignatian pedagogical paradigm proposed.

4) What previously acquired concepts students bring with them to the

start of the learning process. Their point of view and insights that they may have acquired (Kolvenbach, 1993: 24-27).

b. Experience

In the first place this calls for knowing facts, concepts, principles. This requires one to probe the connotation and overtones of words and events, to

analyze and evaluate ideas, to reason. Ignatius urges that the whole person – mind, heart and will – should enter the learning experience. He encourages use of the imagination and the feelings as well as the mind in experience. Thus affective as well as cognitive dimensions of the human person are involved, because without internal feeling joined to intellectual grasp, learning will not move a person to action. (Kolvenbach, 1993: 27)

Thus, we use the term EXPERIENCE to describe any activity in which in addition to a cognitive grasp of the matter being considered, some sensation of an affective nature is registered by the student. In any experience, data is perceived by the student cognitively through questioning, investigating its elements and relationships, the students organizes this date into a whole or a hypothesis. “What is this?” “Is it like anything I already know?” “How does it work?” and so on (Kolvenbach, 1993:28).

At the beginning of a new lesson, teachers often perceive how students’ feeling can move them to grow. For it is rare that a student experiences something new in studies without referring it to what he or she already knows. New facts, ideas, view points, theories often present a challenge to what the student understands at that point. This calls for growth – a fuller understanding that may modify or change what had been perceived as adequate knowledge (Kolvenbach, 1993: 29).

Human experience may be either direct or vicarious. Direct experience is a cognitive knowing, however, can leave the reader distant and aloof to the human dimensions of the storm. Direct experience usually is fuller, more engaging of the

person. Direct experience in an academic setting usually occurs in interpersonal experiences such as conversations or discussions, laboratory investigations, field trips, service projects, participation in sports, and the like.

But, in studies direct experience is not always possible. Learning is often achieved through vicarious experience in reading, or listening to a teacher. In order to involve students in the learning experience more fully at a human level, teachers are challenged to stimulate students’ imagination and use of the senses precisely so that students can enter the reality studied more fully. The teacher can use simulations, role playing, use of audio visual materials and the like that can be helpful (Kolvenbach, 1993: 30).

In conclusion, whether direct or vicarious, learners perceive data as well as their affective responses to it. Thus, learners need to be attentive and active in achieving comprehension and understanding of the human reality that confronts them.

c. Reflection

At this level of REFLECTION, the memory, the understanding, the imagination and the feelings are used to capture the meaning and the essential value of what is being studied, or to discover its relationship with other aspects of knowledge and human activity, and to appreciate its implications in the ongoing search for truth and freedom. This REFLECTION is a formative and liberating process. It forms the conscience of learners in such a manner that they are led to move beyond knowing, to undertake action (Kolvenbach, 1993: 31).

We use the term reflection to mean a thoughtful reconsideration of some subject matter, experience, idea, purpose or spontaneous reaction, in order to grasp its significance more fully. Thus, reflection is the process by which meaning surfaces in human experience:

• By understanding the truth being studied more clearly

• By understanding the sources of the sensations or reactions I experience in this consideration.

• By deepening my understanding of the implications of what I have

grasped for myself and for others.

• By achieving personal insights into events, ideas, truth or the distortion of truth and the like.

• By coming to some understanding of who am I (“What moves me, and

why?”) … and who I might be in relation to others.

A major challenge to a teacher at this stage of the learning paradigm is to formulate questions that will broaden students’ awareness and impel them to consider view-points of others. As educators, we insist that all of this be done with total respect for the student’s freedom. We recognize that it is possible that due to developmental factors, insecurity or other events currently impacting a student’s life, he or she may not be able to grow in directions of greater altruism, justice, etc. ( Kolvenbach, 1993: 32-34).

The reflection envisioned can and should be broadened wherever appropriate to enable students and teachers to share their reflections and thereby

have the opportunity to grow together. Shared reflection can reinforce, encourage and ultimately give greater assurance that the action to be taken is more comprehensive and consistent with what it means to be a person for others.

The terms EXPERIENCE and REFLECTION may be defined variously according to different schools of pedagogy, and we agree with the tendency to use these similar terms to express teaching that is personalized and learner-active and whose aim is not merely the assimilation of subject-matter but the development of the person. Those two terms express a “way of proceeding” that is more effective in achieving “integral formation” of the student, that is, a way of experiencing and reflecting that leads the student not only to delve deeply into the subject itself but to look for meaning in life, and to make personal options (ACTION) according to a comprehensive world vision.On the other hand, we know that experience and reflection are not separable phenomena. It is not possible to have an experience without some amount of reflection, and all reflection carries with it some intellectual or affective experiences (Kolvenbach, 1993: 34-35).

d. Action

Reflection only develops and matures when it fosters decisions and commitment. The term “Action” here refers to internal human growth based upon experience that has been reflected upon as well as its manifestation externally. It involves two steps:

1) Interiorized Choice

A choice which occurs when a person decides that a truth is to be his or her personal point of reference, attitude or predisposition which will affect any

number of decisions. It is at this point that the student chooses to make the truth his or her own while remaining open to where the truth might lead.

2) Choices Externally Manifested

In time, these meanings, attitudes, values which have been interiorized, made part of the person, impel the student to act, to do something consistent with this new conviction. If the meaning was positive, then the student will likely seek to enhance those conditions in which the original experience took place. For example, if she has acquired a taste for history of literature, she may resolve to make time for reading (Kolvenbach, 1993:36).

However, if the meaning was negative, then the student will likely seek to adjust, change, diminish or avoid the conditions and circumstances in which the original experience took place. For example, if the student now appreciates the reasons for his or her lack of success in school work, the student may decide to improve study habits in order to avoid repeated failure (Kolvenbach, 1993: 37).

e. Evaluation

All teachers know that from time to time it is important to evaluate a student’s progress in academic achievement. Daily quizzes, weekly or monthly tests and semester examinations are familiar evaluation instrument to assess the degree of mastery of knowledge and skills achieved.

Ignatian pedagogy, however, aims at formation which includes but goes beyond academic mastery. Here we are concerned about students’ well-rounded growth as persons for others. Thus, periodic evaluation of the student’s growth in attitudes, priorities and actions consistent with being a person for others is

essential. There are a variety of ways in which this fuller human growth can be assesed. All must take into account the age, talents and developmental levels of each student (Kolvenbach, 1993: 38).

Useful pedagogical approaches include mentoring, review of student journals, student self-evaluation in light of personal growth profiles, as well as review of leisure time activities and voluntary service to others. This can be a priveleged moment for a teacher both to congratulate and encourage the student for progress made (Kolvenbach, 1993: 39).

This model of proceeding can thus become an effective ongoing pattern for learning as well as a stimulus to remain open to growth throughout a lifetime. A repetition of the Ignatian paradigm can help the growth of a student:

1) Who will gradually learn to discriminate and be selective in choosing experiences

2) Who is able to draw fullness and richness from the reflection on those experiences

3) Who becomes self-motivated by his or her own integrity and humanity to make conscious, responsible choices.

In addition, perhaps most important, consistent use of the Ignatian paradigm can result in the acquisition of life-long habits of learning which foster attention to experience, reflective understanding beyond self-interest, and criteria for responsible action (Kolvenbach, 1993: 40-41).

4. Theory of Teaching Reading

a. Reading

Goodman (1976) and Smith (1878) as citied by Vacca (1981: 12) define reading as an active process of deriving meaning. A reader interacts with print in an effort to understand the author’s message and makes sense out of what she or he reads, reading is not simply a passive process. It is more than seeing words clearly, more than pronouncing printed words correctly, more than recognizing the meaning of isolated words. Reading requires thinking, feeling and imagination.

b. Teaching Reading Comprehension

Previously, teaching reading simply emphasized accurate and fluent pronunciation. Today, a dominant goal of reading is comprehension. This means the ability to find meaning in what is read (Mc Neil, et al., 1980: 129). The idea of gaining understanding, meaning, or knowledge from reading is emphasized.

Pearson and Johnson (1978: 227) states that “Reading comprehension is at once a unitary process and a set of discrete processes.” In addition, Adoniou (2007) states that “Reading comprehension is heavily dependent on skilled word recognition and decoding, oral reading fluency, a well-developed vocabulary and active engagement with the text.”

1) Comprehension

As we understand that in reading activity, one important point that the readers must have is comprehension of the text. Comprehension plays an

important role in reading activity. It means that when students are doing reading activity, they should understand what they read. Although comprehension is a complex activity that involves combining reading with thinking and reasoning, the students need to achieve it to get the advantages when doing reading activity.

2) Units of Comprehension

Burns C. (1984: 151) explains that the basic comprehension units in reading are words, sentences, paragraphs and the whole selections. These units combine to form all written materials the learners encounter.

a) Words

The students’s sight vocabularies should be built from words they already comprehend. Words that are a part of their meaning vocabularies. This is concerned with the development of extensive meaning vocabularies and the difficulties that certain types of words may present to youngsters.

The growth of vocabulary is essentially the development of labels for the child’s schemata. Because students must call upon their existing schemata to comprehend, vocabulary development is an important component of comprehension skill.

Vocabulary building is a complex process involving many kinds of words. Students need to improve their vocabulary to produce good result. Here are the four of the most common methods for students to discover the meanings of unfamiliar words:

1) Context Clues

The use of context clues to help recognize words that are familiar in speech but not in print. Context clues also key the meaning of an unfamiliar word by directly defining the word, providing an appositive, or comparing or contrasting the word with a known word.

2) Structure Clues

Structural analysis as a word recognizing skill, can also be used as an aid in discovering meanings of unknown words. Knowing meanings of common affixes and combining them with meanings of familiar root words can help the learners determine the meanings of many new words. 3) Analogies and Word Lines

Analogies compare two similar relationships and thereby bolster word knowledge. Educators may teach analogies by displaying examples of categories, relationships, and analogies, asking and guiding questions about the examples, allowing students to discuss the questions and applying the ideas that emerge.

Whereas, the use of word lines is to show the relationships among words, just as they use number lines for numbers.

4) Dictionary Use

The dictionary is an excellent source to use in discovering meanings of unfamiliar words, particulary for determining the appropriate meanings of words that have multiple definitions or specific, technical definitions.

b) Sentences

The students may find complicated sentences that are difficult to understand, so they need to know ways to attack them, or derive their meaning. Reseach has shown that systematic instruction in sentence comprehension increases reading comprehension. The students will understand the material better when the syntax is like their oral language patterns.

c) Paragraphs

Paragraphs are groups of sentences that serve a particular within a whole selection or passage. They may be organized around a main idea or topic. Understand the paragraphs’ functions, the paragraphs’ general organization, and the paragraphs’ relationships between the sentences in a paragraph is important to reading comprehension.

d) Whole Selections

The understanding of the whole selections depends upon understanding the smaller units (Burns, 1984).

3) Levels of Comprehension

Burns (1984: 177) states that it is possible to understand materials on a number of different levels. In fact, the students need to achieve higher levels of reading comprehension to become informed and effective citizens. According to Burns (1984), there are four levels of reading comprehension.

a)Literal reading comprehension

At this level, the reader is simply “reading the lines.” Literal comprehension is to take ideas and detail notes that are directly stated. The task of the reader is to locate and identify information that is explicitly stated by the author.

b)Interpretative reading comprehension

At the inferential level, the reader is “reading between the lines.” The reader takes the information gained at the literal levels and draws conclusions, makes inferences, and predicts outcomes based on the explicit information supplied by the author. In other words, in this level, the learner is expected to discover conclusion from what is written and find main ideas and cause and effect relationship when the factors are not stated.

c) Critical reading comprehension

Critical reading is to read for information. At this level, the reader may apply external information such as background experience, cultural values and personal values. The reader’s major task at this level is to pass a personal judgement on the text and to form and express an opinion. In order to do this, the reader must attend to the meanings both stated and implied by the author as well as all the information gained at the “Literal” and “Inferential” levels. Therefore, the reader must attend to both denotative and connotative meaning in order to critically evaluate a text.

d)Creative reading comprehension

Creative reading is to read beyond the lines. It enables the reader to use the printed matter to solve problems, make judgements regarding the actions of characters, and draw a conclusion about what they would have done.

5. Theory of Teaching Writing

Robert & Nancy (1985: 3) states that writing is a way of thinking as well as a means of communication, and one of the things it can be used to think about is yourself. Every act of communication involves sender who initiates a message and a receiver who interprets it, a writer explaining communication and a reader deciphering symbols on a page. But the elements that make up the situation in which communication takes place can be specified even further. All writing situations, for example, may be described by a simple diagram:

topic

writer text reader

form of writing Figure 4: The Writing Situation

The central level of the diagram (writer → text → reader) describes the basic process of written communication. The writer produces a written message that is transmitted to the reader. The readers read it, interpret it, and understand it, thus completing the process. In order for this to happen, however, the writer and

reader must share two kinds of knowledge, indicated on the diagram by the upper and lower terms (topic and form of writing) (Robert & Nancy, 1985: 6).

Raimes (1983) explains the reasons to include writing as a part of second language syllabus. Writing helps our students learn. First, writing reinforces the grammatical structures, idioms, and vocabulary that we have been teaching our students. Second, when our students write, they also have a chance to be adventurous with the language, to go beyond what they have just learned to say, to take a risk. Third, when they write, they necessarily become very involved with the new language; the effort to express ideas and constant use of eye, hand, and brain is a unique way to reinforce learning.

6. The Integrated Teaching Reading and Writing

Obviously, when the students read, they interact with the finished product. Reading can do far more in the teaching of writing than simply provide subject matter for discussion and for composition topics. When our students read, they engage actively with the new language and culture. Reading is the only activity that gives them access to unlimited amounts of the language. The more our students read, the more they become familiar with the vocabulary, idiom, sentence, patterns, organizational flow, and cultural assumptions of native speakers of the language (Raimes, 1983: 50).

A short story, a newspaper column, an advertisement, a letter, a magazine article, or a piece of student writing can work as a picture to provide shared content in the classroom. Readings can also, like pictures, be used to create an

information gap that leads to communicative activities: if the students work with a variety of readings at the same time, then they will be dealing with different content, and anything they write to each other will thus be authentic communication, conveying new and real information (Raimes, 1983: 50).

The activities we can ask students to do in the classroom to tie their reading in with their writing fall into two broad categories: they can work either with the text or from the text. Students work with the text when they copy and when they examine the writer’s choices of specific linguistic and logical features, such as cohesive links, punctuation, grammar, sentence arrangement, and organization. They work from the text when they use it to create a text of their own, that is, when they summarize, complete, speculate, or react (Raimes, 1983: 51).

In teaching the integrated reading and writing, the teacher can create many teaching strategies which enhance the students in learning reading and writing skills. These following strategies are some strategies for teaching integrated reading and writing:

1) Asking Questions to Clarify

According to Chamot, et al. (1986: 26), in their book The Learning Strategies Handbook states that asking questions to clarify means clarifying involves your asking for explanation, verification, rephrasing, or examples.

a. Conducting this strategy, we usually use question words such as:

b. Where…?

d. How do you know?

e. What does it mean…?

f. What’s the reason?

g. What happened…?Etc.

2) Predicting

Predicting involves thinking of the kinds of words, phrases, and information that you can expect to encounter during the task.” In addition, Chamot, et al. (1986: 27) states that “The purpose of using prediction is to motivate the student, increase comprehension, help students to share prior knowledge and give responsibility of comprehension to the students”

3) Activating Background Knowledge

According to Bonnie and Jean (2002: 85), when you activate background knowledge, you help students recognize and use information they already posses. Your students probably posses some degree of knowledge about the text they are reading, but they may not think about what they know as they read. To activate background knowledge, you can ask students what they already know about the topic. You should be able whether their background knowledge is adequate, inadequate, or erroneous.

4) Checking Comprehension

When conducting reading comprehension activity, the students should really understand the information on the text. According to Greenall & Michael Swan (1986: 3) “Checking comprehension means the students need to study the

passage very closely to find the answer to a question. The information you require is in the passage all you have to do is find it”.

5) Discussion

According to Bonnie and Jean (2002: 87), the purpose of discussion for students is to exchange ideas freely in order to gain new understandings or perspectives. Research has shown that small-group discussion about texts can enhance comprehension and recall as personal connection to the text.

6) Listening

In many of the studies on listening, the task was to listen to the passage then answer the comprehension questions. According to Chamot, et al., (1986: 169), in listening, the students in the intervention group were taught to use selective attention, take notes, and cooperate with a classmate to review their notes after listening.

7) Writing

According to Bonnie and Jean (2002: 87), writing is a powerful way to help students connect what they already know with new information in the text because writing requires the active manipulation of ideas. (Ambruster, et al., 2002)

8) Independent Reading

Independent reading involves encouraging students to engage with texts individually. Students may listen to taped texts as they follow the print and reread texts to increase fluency and to experience success in reading. Students need opportunities to read books which are matched to their reading ability. When most

of the words are known or can be worked out students consolidate their understanding and develop confidence in themselves as readers. Students can read unknown words more easily if the text is structured in such a way that some of its patterns are recognizable (English K-6).

9) Guided Reading

Guiding students as they read aloud provides for interaction between the teacher and the student who is learning to read. During guided reading, teachers can show students how to bring to their reading knowledge of content and language patterns of the text. Guided reading generally involves:

a. Helping the students read the text b. Talking about the text with the students c. Prompting the students when necessary

d. Matching the text with the student’s ability and interest

e. Orientating the student to the text before reading by drawing attention to the important ideas and language used (English K-6).

10)Retelling

According to Bonnie and Jean (2002: 71), retelling is a strategy identified by the National Reading Panel. In retelling, the students orally reconstruct stories that they have heard or read. Some research has shown that retelling is promising as a strategy for improving comprehension for students who read a story. This strategy can facilitate comprehension.

11) Understanding Text Organization

According to Bonnie and Jean (2002), readers may sometimes have trouble in seeing how a passage is organized. The readers should recognize how sentences are joined together to make paragraphs, how paragraphs form the passage, and how this organization is signaled.

Students who are trained to recognize the text structures do better in comprehension. Moreover, they will be able to distinguish between main ideas and supporting details, identify main ideas, write summaries, understand how parts of the text are related and recognize cohesive devices that writers use and the act use this knowledge to write more clearly.

12) Games

According to Malay (1999), games are fun and children like to play them. That in itself is a strong argument for incorporating them in the EFL classroom. Playing games is a vital and natural part of growing up and learning. Games add variation to a lesson and increase motivation by providing a plausible incentive to use the target language.

In addition Wright, et al., (2006: 1) states that “Game means an activity which is entertaining and engaging, often challenging, and an activity in which the learners play and usually interact with others.”

13) Getting the Main Idea

According to Bonnie and Jean (2002), Effective comprehension depends on the ability to separate important from unimportant information. Skilled readers are able to determine the relative importance of information in a text.

14) Summarizing

According to Bonnie and Jean (2002), summarizing is closely related to getting the main idea, or determining importance, this strategy is the ability to synthesize information across larger units of text to create summaries. Students must be able to integrate main ideas into a coherent summary that will presumably help them remember both important and supporting information about what they read. Creating a summary requires deleting irrelevant or redundant material, condensing information, locating topic sentences for paragraphs, and developing topic sentences for paragraphs that do not have them. Summarizing is thus a complex task that, even with instruction, develops gradually over time.

15) Evaluating

According to Bonnie and Jean (2002), after completing part or all of a task, good learners reflect on how well it went. This process allows them to see if they carried out their plans and to check how well strategies helped. Strategic students assess whether they met their goals for the task and if they did not, why they didn’t meet those goals and what they can do differently next time. They evaluate the appropriateness of their predictions and guesses. If those were not correct, good learners think of how they can learn to make better ones next time. Regardless of whether the self-evaluation is positive or negative, it is important for students to learn from it so that they can make improvements on the next task.

16) Student self-evaluation

According to Bonnie and Jean (2002), ask the students to do self-evaluation by answering some questions about what points that they get from the lesson, the difficulties and some new vocabulary that they have learn.

7. The 2006 Edition of School-Based Curriculum

Recently, all schools in Indonesia have applied the 2006 Edition of

School-Based curriculum. One of them is SMA Negeri 11 Yogyakarta. Muslich

(2007: 17) states that School-Based Curriculum is a little bit different from the previous curriculum used in Indonesia, which was Competency-Based Curriculum. School-Based Curriculum is a curriculum which was proposed as the improvement of Competency-Based Curriculum.

Badan Standar Nasional Pendidikan, an association which designs the guideline for the 2006 Edition of School-Based Curriculum, as quoted in Muslich 2007: 17), states that the 2006 Edition of School Based Curriculum is the operational curriculum which is managed and done in each school. The schools are expected to develop their own curriculum and make the materials. This curriculum is required to help the students to reach the standard of the students’ competencies. Therefore, the materials that will be used must be adjusted with the school level, regional characteristics, society cultural, and students’ characteris

B. Theoretical Framework

The method of this study is Research and Development (R&D). To design the teaching strategies for integrated reading and writing, I use the combination of Kemp and Yalden Instructional Design theories. The teaching strategies which are applied by the teacher in teaching reading and writing give important roles for the students in mastering both reading and writing skills. To develop the teaching strategies I use the adaptation of Reflective pedagogy theory. Reflective pedagogy is a theory derived from Saint Ignatius Loyola which can be helpful in every form of educational service. It is a paradigm with inherent potential for going beyond mere theory to become a practical tool and effective instrument for making a difference in the way the teacher teaches and in the way our students learn.

In developing the teaching strategies based on Reflective pedagogy for integrated reading and writing, I need to adapt and combine two insctructional design models namely Kemp’s model and Yalden’s model. These two models complete each other. I combine the three similar or the same stages, namely description of purposes, evaluation and revision. Then, I adapt three steps of Kemp’s model. They are determining goals, topics and purposes, stating learning objectives and selecting teaching learning activities and materials and evaluating. I also take two important stages of Yalden’s model which could not be found in Kemp’s model, namely (1) needs survey and (2) Designing the Teaching Strategies. In brief, I sets seven stages resulting from the adapation and combination of two instructional design models namely (1) Conducting Need Survey, (2) Determining Goals, Topics, General Purposes, (3) Stating Learning

Objectives, (4) Selecting Teaching Learning Activities and Materials, (5) Designing the Teaching Strategies, (6) Evaluating, (7) Revising.

1. Conducting Need Survey (Yalden’s Model)

I use the first step of Yalden’s model as an initial step in developing teaching strategies which suits the students and the teacher’s need. At this step, I collect the information about the students’ need, the teacher’s need, the lack of the students’ and the English teacher by conducting an interview with the English teacher of grade X students of SMA 11 Yogyakarta.

2. Determining Goals, Topics, General Purposes (Kemp’s Model)

The next step is taken from the first step of Kemp’s model, “Considering goals, list topics, and stating the general purpose” and also the second step of Yalden’s model, “Description of Purposes”. I determine the goals as the basis for developing teaching strategies based on Reflective pedagogy for integrated reading and writing for grade X students of SMA Negeri 11 Yogyakarta. Then, the topics are selected. After all, I determine the general purposes of each topic.

3. Stating Learning Objectives (Kemp’s Model)

This step is adopted from Kemp’s model. After determining the purposes, I specify the purpose to formulate objectives of what students should achieve after each meeting.

75 UNIT 7

How to make It…?

Basic Competences Reading:

To respond meaning and rhetorical steps in simple essay accurately, fluently, and acceptably in daily life contexts and to access knowledge in the form of procedure text.

Writing:

To express meaning and rhetorical steps in simple essay accurately, fluently, ad acceptably in daily life contexts and to access knowledge in the form of procedure text.

Indicators:

At the end of the lesson, the students are able to:

a. Identify the topic of the lesson through games b. Identify the theme of the lesson

c. Read the text with the correct pronunciation d. Predict meaning of words from the context e. Analyze the procedure text

f. Answer the comprehension questions based on the text g. Discuss about the use of procedure text and how to make it h. Produce simple written procedure text

i. Evaluate their friends’ performance

1. CONTEXT OF LEARNING

a. The 1st teaching strategy: Games

• Ask the students to read the procedure to make “Cat’s Face”

• Then, ask them to play games by making cat’s face based on the text. b. The 2nd teaching strategy: Predicting

• From the activity of making cat’s face, ask the students to predict the topic of the lesson.

2. EXPERIENCE

a. The 1st teaching strategy: Guided Reading

• Choose one student in random to read the text for the whole class • Correct his/her wrong pronunciation

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b. The 2nd teaching strategy: Checking Comprehension • Ask the students to answer the comprehension questions • The answer

No The words The meaning

1 Lino (n) Strong, smooth, shiny floor-covering

2 Trace (v) Find (sth) after looking for it with great effort

3 Blade (n) Sharp cutting edge of a knife, razor, etc.

4 Coating (n) Thin layer

5 Thick (adj) Having great or the stated distance between opposite surface

6 Rub (v) Move (sth) backwards & forwards on the surface of something else

7 Tidy (adj) Neat; orderly

1.The goal of the passage is how to create a lino print.

2.We should rub the paper with the back of a spoon to transfer the ink. 3.The process to create a lino print are (see the text)

4.Yes/ no.

3. REFLECTION

The teaching strategy: Discussion

• Ask the students to work with their partner. Then, discuss about some questions

• After finishing the discussion, you can ask some representatives of groups to present their result of discussion.

4. ACTION

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Ask your students to work individually for making a short procedure text with the topic how to create somethings.

5. EVALUATION

a. The teaching strategy used: Evaluating

• Ask the students to give comment on the students’ performance. Beside, you also give comments on them.

• Points to consider in giving comments: The idea/topic

The clarity of the steps Grammar

Etc.

b. The 2nd teaching strategy: Student-self Evaluation

• Ask the students to do self-evaluation by answering some questions about what points that they get from the lesson, the difficulties and some new vocabulary that they have learnt.

78 UNIT 8

Narrative

Legend & Myth (around the world)

Basic Competences Reading:

To respond meaning and rhetorical steps in simple essay accurately, fluently, and acceptably in daily life contexts and to access knowledge in the form of narrative text

Writing:

To express meaning and rhetorical steps in simple essay accurately, fluently, and acceptably in daily life contexts to access knowledge in the form of narrative text.

Indicators:

At the end of the lesson, the students are able to: a. Discuss about the theme of the lesson b. Read the text with the correct pronunciation

c. Predict unfamiliar words in the text from its context d. Identify the main idea of the text

e. Answer the questions based on the text

f. Discuss about the values/ messages from the passage g. Produce short narrative text

h. Evaluate their friends’ composition

1. CONTEXT OF LEARNING

The teaching strategy: Discussion

• Ask your students to make a group of 4 students and discuss about some questions

2. EXPERIENCE

a. The 1st teaching strategy: Guided Reading

• Choose one student in random to read the text for the whole class • While your student is reading the text, correct his/her wrong

pronunciation

b. The 2nd teaching strategy: Checking Comprehension • Ask the students to answer the comprehension questions

79 • The answers

1. a 2. d 3. g 4. f 5. e 6. b 7. c

The main Idea of each paragraph:

P. 2: I want to make up for the damage I have done

P. 3: Within seconds of planting, a forest miraculously sprang to life. fell in love with her at once.

P. 4: They lived happily together

P. 5: One day Ula met Jaguar while out hunting. There was a terrible battle.

P. 6: She went with them, carrying her baby. P. 7: He was no longer a tree man.

1. The main characters in the story were a girl and Ula.

2. The supporting characters were Saruram, Jagua, and the man. 3. Saruram was the wicked spirit.

4. Ula was a half man and half tree who became the woman’s husband. 5. Saruram wanted to make up the forest because it was wrong of

Saruram.

6. When he woke up from his asleep for a long time.

7. Ula realized that he was no longer tree. Then, Ula continued his life with his family happily ever after.

3. REFLECTION

The teaching strategy: Discussion

• Ask the students to make a group of 5 students. Then, discuss about some questions

• After finishing the discussion, you can ask some representatives of group to present their result of discussion.

80 4. ACTION

The teaching strategy: Writing

Ask your students to work individually for making a short narrative text with the topic legend or myth around the world.

5. EVALUATION

a. The teaching strategy used: Evaluating

• Ask the students to give comment on the students’ performance. Beside, you also give comments on them.

• Points to consider in giving comments: The idea of the story

Plot Grammar Etc.

b. The 2nd teaching strategy: Student-self Evaluation

• Ask the students to do self-evaluation by answering some questions about what points that they get from the lesson, the difficulties and some new vocabulary that they have learnt.