Types of abuse 1 Abuse a. Definition of abuse

1 parents having stress problems. Dubanoski et al in Corby, 2006: 164 stated that high level of stress is one of the causes of physical abuse. Those who lack of stress management control which may occur due to stress they get from their works may release their frustration towards children. If this frustration occurs continuously, parents or caregivers may abuse their children. As an example, a caregiver or a mother who works all day long may feel frustrated if her child keeps on asking for studying assistance during the night since the mother felt tired. As a result, the mother would abuse her child physically by slapping the child. Some believe that parenting is a tiresome duty. They believe that taking care of their children does not bring any benefits to them. Since they do not have any benefit and felt unrewarded from raising a child, they may insult their child. 2 lack of interrelationship between the parents or caregivers and the child. Lacking of interrelationship between both parents and children could make the child defiant or disobedient Olive, 2007: 54. The more disobedient the child becomes, the more frustration the parent feel. Again, this anger and frustration leads to abuse. As an example, if a parent views his or her child as someone who is naughty and lack of manner, heshe may strike the child. The cycle of misbehavior and abuse is called the interactional process Olive, 2007: 54. There is a connection between child‟s behavior and parent‟s reaction. 3 poverty. Poverty is one of the causes of abuse and neglect Olive, 2007: 68. Gilhan and his colleagues in Corby, 2006: 131 discovered that there is a correlation between male unemployment and physical abuse of children in a survey of nearly 7,000 cases in Strathclyde in the early 1990‟s. People who are in low economic level felt more stress than those in stable financial conditions. The greater the level of stress, the greater the possibility of abuse will occur. The 1996 National Incidence study found that children from poor families were likely to experience abuses than other classes above Sediak and Broadhurst in Corby 2006: 131. Although some lower class family experience neglect, middle and higher class family may also experience neglect, but it is more likely to be experienced by lower class family. Those in the low economic level sometimes run into alcohol or drug to relief themselves from stress due to poverty. Parents who suffer from stress due to poverty may have less interest in nurturing their children and may also abuse them. 4 the vulnerability of the abused. Those with young age are easier in risk of being abuse by parents or caregivers. This happens because children at young ages, commonly three or younger, are defenseless and weak physically. This makes it easier for adults to abuse them. According to the U.S.Department of Health and Human Services in the year 2004, “children age three or younger experienced the highest rate of abuse ” Olive, 2007: 55. In addition, the longer term ill effects, more likely to be experienced by pre-puberty abuse victims than adolescence victims Russell in Corby, 2006: 205. 5 drugs and alcohol. Children of alcoholics or drug addicts are often psychologically damaged by their parents‟ abuse and the attention it takes away from them. In Britain, children who lived with alcoholic parents may suffer from behavioral problems, school problems, emotional disturbances, lower self-esteem, anxiety, depression, and disrupted routines which are the effects of substance abuse Kroll and Taylor in Corby, 2006: 142. 6 parent‟s divorce. When a parent has to take care of a child by themselves, heshe might feel more stressful since it would make hisher life more difficult. By taking care of a child alone could increase hisher burden. This will lead parent to abuse the child psychologically. Factor such as parental divorce can cause parents to direct their inability to cope with stressors toward the children Olive, 2007: 68. 7 the environment of the abusers. Adults who live in unhealthy environments are likely not learning to take care a child properly Olive, 2007: 68. Parents or caregivers who neglect their children tend to be isolated and do not have many friends. They do not have adequate knowledge in caring for their children. According to a study done by Coohey in Corby, 2006: 144, stated the three variables in assessing the impacts of isolation, they are number of network contacts, the amount of received support and the parents‟ perception of that support. She found that isolation and neglect have strong correlation. 8 gender inequality. According to Olive 2007: 81 majority 95 to 98 percent of people who sexually abuse children are male with victims of both male and female. Another prove was stated by Finkelhor in Corby, 2006: 127 that 95 percent of girls and 80 percent of boys In the United States are sexually abused by males. So, males are more likely to perform such abuse. Between 1980 and 1986, 8 out of 411 children were sexually abused by females, according to a report from the Great Osmond Street Hospital for sick children. It means that male dominates in the act of sexual abuse Ben Tovim et al. in Corby, 2006:127. The sexual abuses launched by men over women are the media for gaining control over women Dominelli in Corby, 2006: 175. Sexual abuse is also seen as an example of institutionalized male power over females Corby, 2006: 175. 9 abusers‟ past experience. As a result of being abused in hisher lives, the ex-victims of abuse wanted to satisfy or express their lust of power and control which they could not fulfill when being abused. These abusers look for a medium of fulfilling their lust that is by abusing children. An example is in the case of sexual abuse, according to Groth and Burgess in Corby, 2006: 135 “that 32 per cent of a group of 106 child