THE EFFECTS OF ABUSE ON PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN TESS STEVENS’ SOLD: A PSYCHOLOGY OF LITERATURE STUDY.

THE EFFECTS OF ABUSE ON PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN TESS STEVENS‟ SOLD: A PSYCHOLOGY OF LITERATURE STUDY

A THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Attainment of the Sarjana Sastra Degree in English Language and Literature

By

Halim Widyawardhana

11211144009

ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE STUDY PROGRAM FACULTY OF LANGUAGES AND ARTS

YOGYAKARTA STATE UNIVERSITY 2016

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DEDICATION

In the name of Allah; the entirely merciful, the especially merciful. I dedicate this thesis to:

My Father, Hajar Gelis Pramudyasmono

My Mother, Widayati

My Brother, Andhika Widyadwatmaja

For their support and prayers for my struggle in being a better person in life.

My late Grandfather, Kardji Hadisiswanto

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Alhamdulillahhi rabbil ‘alamin, prayers and praises to Allah SWT, the Almighty and Merciful God of the universe and all human kind. Due to His blessing, guidance, and mercy, I am able to finish my undergraduate thesis. My greeting and invocation are presented to the prophet Mohammad SAW, who has guided his followers to the straight path of life; Islam. I acknowledge my thesis consultants, family, lecturers, and friends who have encouraged and supported me during my struggle in writing my thesis.

First and foremost, I would like to express my deep appreciation and gratitude to my consultants; Dr. Widyastuti Purbani, M.A. and Eko Rujito D.A., M.Hum, for their guidance, advice, and constructive criticism during my process of writing this thesis. Second, I would like to express my greatest gratitude to my my parents, Hajar and Widayati, who always support and pray for me in order for me to complete this thesis with my maximum effort. Then, I would like to thank my brother, Andhika, for his help whenever I need it. My special thanks go to my late grandfather, Mbah Kardji, for giving me guidance and advices in life. Finally now I could keep my promise to him by finishing my thesis. I hope we will meet again someday in Jannah.

In addition, I would like to thank all lectures of the English Department of the State University of Yogyakarta, who have taught me valuable lessons in campus. Next, I would like to thank all of my friends from ‘Sasing 2011’ for their support and help in accomplishing my thesis. I thank them for accompanying me in studying at this University. I would never forget all the wonderful times we had

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE ... i

APPROVAL SHEET ... ii

RATIFICATION SHEET ... iii

SURAT PERNYATAAN ... iv

DEDICATION ... v

MOTTO ... vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... ix

LIST OF FIGURES ... xii

LIST OF TABLES ... xiii

ABSTRACT ... xiv

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ... 1

A. Background of the Study ... 1

B. Focus of the Study ... 8

C. Objectives of the Study ... 9

D. Significance of the Study ... 9

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW ... 11

A. Theoretical Background ... 11

1. Literature and Psychology... 11

2. Erik Erikson‟s Psychosocial Theory ... 13

a. The principle of psychosocial theory ... 13

b. The stages of psychosocial development ... 15

1) trust vs. mistrust. ... 16

2) autonomy vs. shame and doubt. ... 17

3) initiative vs. guilt. ... 18

4) industry vs. inferiority. ... 19

5) identity vs. role confusion. ... 20

6) intimacy vs. isolation. ... 21

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1) physical abuse. ... 25

2) psychological maltreatment. ... 26

3) neglect. ... 27

4) sexual abuse. ... 28

c. Causes of the abuses... 28

1) parents having stress problems. ... 29

2) lack of interrelationship between the parents or caregivers and the child. ... 29

3) poverty. ... 30

4) the vulnerability of the abused. ... 30

5) drugs and alcohol. ... 31

6) parent‟s divorce. ... 31

7) the environment of the abusers. ... 31

8) gender inequality. ... 32

9) abusers‟ past experience. ... 32

d. Effects of the abuses ... 33

1) physical wound in certain area of the body. ... 33

2) having difficulties in coping with anger. ... 34

3) difficulties in studying. ... 34

4) difficulties in socializing. ... 34

5) poor physical health. ... 35

6) juvenile delinquency and adult crime. ... 35

7) consuming illegal drugs and alcoholic. ... 36

8) genophobia. ... 36

B. Previous Research Findings ... 36

C. Conceptual Framework ... 38

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A. Research Design ... 40

B. The Sources of the Data ... 40

C. Instruments of the Research ... 41

D. The Technique of the Data Collection ... 42

E. Data Analysis ... 43

F. Data Trustworthiness ... 43

CHAPTER IV RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ... 45

A. The Abuses Experienced by Tess ... 45

1. Psychological Abuse ... 45

2. Sexual Abuse ... 48

3. Neglect ... 53

4. Physical Abuse ... 55

B. The Causes of the Abuses Experienced by Tess ... 58

1. Gender Inequality ... 58

2. Poverty ... 60

3. Abuser‟s Past Experience ... 62

4. Parent‟s Divorce ... 64

C. The Effects of the Abuses Experienced by Tess ... 65

1. Genophobia ... 66

2. Juvenile Delinquency and Adult Crime ... 69

3. Physical Wound in Certain Area of the Body ... 71

4. Difficulties in Socializing ... 73

D. The Effects of the Abuses on Tess‟ Personality Development ... 74

1. Inferiority ... 75

2. Role Confusion ... 78

3. Isolation ... 82

4. Generativity ... 85

CHAPTER V CONCLUSION ... 90

REFERENCES ... 93

APPENDICES ... 95

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Erikson‟s Psychosocial Crisis Theory of Human Development ... ...24

Table 2: The Types of Abuse Experienced by Tess ... .. 41

Table 3: The Causes of the Abuses Experienced by Tess ... 41

Table 4: The Effects of the Abuses Experienced by Tess ... 42

Table 5: The Effects of the Abuses on Tess‟ Personality Development ... 42

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By Halim Widyawardhana 11211144009

ABSTRACT

This research aims to find the abuses experienced by Tess Stevens, the causes of the abuses, the effects of the abuses, and the effects of the abuses on Tess‟ personality development in the autobiography of Sold. In order to answer the objectives, this research employed Erikson‟s psychosocial theory and the theories of abuse by several scholars.

This study is a qualitative research employing content analysis method. The data of this research are words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs which are taken from an autobiography entitled Sold which have correlation with the objectives of the research. Since this is a qualitative research, the researcher was the primary instrument of this research, while the table sheets were the secondary instruments. The data analysis was conducted through four steps: reading and re-reading, arranging and sorting the categorized data, interpreting, and reporting the findings in the research. In order to obtain trustworthiness, the researcher conducted triangulation.

The findings of the research show that there are four abuses experienced by Tess: psychological abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, and physical abuse. The second finding shows that there are four causes of the abuses: gender inequality, poverty, abuser‟s past experience, and parent‟s divorce. The researcher also found that there are four effects of the abuses: genophobia, juvenile delinquency and adult crime, physical wound in certain area of the body, and difficulties in socializing. Finally, there are four effects of the abuses on Tess‟ personality development: inferiority, role confusion, isolation, and generativity.

Keywords: Abuse, personality development, psychology of literature, psychosocial, Sold.

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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

A. Background of the Study

Literature may represent a society or culture of certain people. Literature and society are interrelated. What is written in a literary work reflects a certain society, and in the society there could be an interaction or socialization between different people. Some literary works do not show the life of humans as the characters. Some shows the story of other beings such as plants and animals. Although some tells about the story of non-human characters, these characters still imitate the life of human, such as the way it thinks, the way it lives, the way it socializes, the way it deals with problems, etc. It could be said that the idea of literature is received from the society and human beings are commonly used as the source of inspiration for creating the characters.

Similar to literature which treated human beings as the source of inspiration for creating the characters of the story, psychology also treated human beings as the main object of the research. According to the Cambridge Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary, psychology is “the scientific study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behaviour, or the influence of a particular person's character on their behavior”. Although both have a similar object, which is humans, both also have a difference. Literature deals with the humans in the imaginary world, while psychology deals with the real humans (Moghaddam, 2004: 516).

Human beings are unique, because their personalities vary among one another. The differences in personalities are due to three major factors; physique, psychology, and experience (Herlambang, 2011: 9). The physical traits such as body height and body weight could influence a person‟s personality. Those with a small body size, for example, might have the characteristics of being shy and having low self-esteem. Another factor is psychology. It is the basic trait which could be inherited from parents, such as brain capacity and emotion. The other factor is experience. It contributes greatly to human‟s personality since it can shape the personality development. The experiences which an individual has in the past can influence his/her personality in the future.

Besides physical and psychological factors which contribute to human‟s personality, experience is also dominant in shaping someone‟s behavior (Herlambang, 2011: 9). Both physique and psychology of a person may have different functions in a certain circumstance due to the influence of experience which a person receives. For instance, a person who is high-tempered and emotional at home will try to control his/her behavior at school because he/she undergoes the punishment for misbehaving previously. This shows that experience is also influential and could affect physical and psychological factors.

Experience is considered to be unique since one‟s experience differs from others. People never have the same experience in life, although it occurs similarly in the same place and at the same time. The differences of experiences are the reason human beings differ in personality. The experience in life could function as guidance for a person in taking the next episodes of life. Guidance contributes in

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personality building since it is the power which human believes in and depends on.

Experience can be classified into two types: general and unique (Herlambang, 2011: 9). General experience is experienced by people in general or by every individual. Different people who are not connected by blood but live in a similar area can experience it. As an example, the Javanese will usually give high-respect to the elders and behave politely because these manners are considered as social norms that should be practiced and taught since childhood. The second is unique experience. It is experience by the individual him/herself. Different individual may have different experience. The different experience which each individual has will affect his/her interaction with others. An example is that someone may behave less confidently since he/she has a burnt skin or scar on his/her face due to external factors.

Human‟s experience could be good or bad. Good experience gives pleasure, reduces the level of stress, increases the knowledge of the individual, and stays in his/her mind for eternity since it is desirable. Similar to good experience, bad experience could also stay in an individual‟s memory and might be unforgettable. Thus, both good and bad experiences can potentially influence the development of human‟s behavior.

Personality development is greatly affected by the social and historical factors (Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2006: 247). According to Erikson, humans will experience the eight psychosocial stages in life. The stages are infancy, early childhood, play age, school age, adolescence, young adulthood, adulthood, and

old age. The previous stages will affect the next stages of personality development. For instance, the experience which someone has in his/her school age could influence the development in the other next stages such as the adolescence or adulthood.

Personality development plays an important role in human‟s lives as a medium to improve personal quality and relationships with others. Personality development includes increasing self-confidence, increasing morality, improving communication skills, and expanding the boundaries of knowledge. For those who work in areas which deal and interact with people, personality development is highly required. An example is that a salesman needs to have great communication skills to convince his customers to buy his products. On the other hand, lacking the quality of personality development could cause a person to have low morality and dependent.

Abuse is one of the phenomena which could influence personality development. Abuse is considered as a serious crime around the world. It is considered cruel and terrifying. Therefore, it is important and will be interesting to discuss it more. According to the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA) in the United States of America (2010: 3) there are several types of abuses; neglect, abandonment, physical, sexual, emotional, and parental substance abuse. These could cause negative effects to the victims, so people should pay more attention to this phenomenon if it occurs in the society.

Different abuses may cause different effects to the victims. The researcher would like to state the effects of physical, sexual, neglect, and emotional abuses

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since they are considered as the most common violence that exists around the world. In the case of physical abuse, the abuser could cause physical damage to the victim, such as bruises and bone fracture. Sexual abuse could cause fatal problems, such as unusual changes in the genital area, pregnancy, and transmitted diseases. The lack of care to a child/person also has negative effects, such as child‟s poor personal hygiene and persistent hunger. Emotional abuse could give negative effects such as headache, nausea, and mental development problems. Although each type of these abuses has different effects, it can greatly influence human‟s personality development if it occurs continuously in the range of years.

One of the factors that cause in abuse is the low economic level of a family. Unfortunately, many people are not aware that poverty can encourage the abusers to abuse their family members or others. Gilhan and his colleagues (in Corby, 2006: 131) discovered that there is a correlation between male unemployment and abuse of children in a survey of nearly 7,000 cases in Strathclyde in the early 1990‟s. Another research done by the National Incident survey in 1996, they founded that the child sexual abuse were 18 times higher for children from poor families in the USA (Sedlak and Broadhurst in Corby, 2006: 132).

Human beings have the right to live in this world peacefully and receive freedom. According to the Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary-3rd

Edition, freedom could be defined as “the condition or right of being able or

allowed to do, say, think, etc. whatever you want to, without being controlled or limited.” Unfortunately, some human beings do not have the equal right of

freedom. Their freedoms are denied by the act of violence they get. Many people have been neglected, starved, and attacked cruelly, so abuse is considered as a serious problem around the world.

There have been some cases of abuse in different countries. In New Guinea in the Bena-Bena area, selling and exchanging children as hostages occurred(Serpcnti in Korbin 1981: 15). The cases of abuse could also be found in Britain. According to Pollock (in Corby, 2006: 20), there were 385 tried cases of such a practice between 1785 and 1860. Another case happened in Cleveland in 1987. A number of 121 children were sexually violenced and most of them were abused anally (Hobbs and Wynne in Corby, 2006: 44). Since many cases have occurred in some countries throughout the years, it is very important for people to prevent this act from happening since it is against the human right and limits freedom.

Some literary works reflects the phenomenon of abuse since it is a reflection of human life. One of the literary works that strongly reflects human experience is an autobiography. Autobiography is a non-fictional story about a person which is written by the person itself. One of the autobiographies that talk about the phenomenon of abuse is Tess Stevens‟ autobiography entitled Sold. Although this autobiography contains the issues of poverty and women‟s struggle, the researcher would like to focus on the abuses mentioned in the autobiography because it is the main issue of the book.

The use of psychological approach in literature is appropriate because psychology and literature deals with the analysis of human. Although both have a

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similarity, psychology and literature differ in the dimension of the object. The dimension of the object of psychology is the real world, while the object of literature is the imagined world, which is the world of literary works which contain the reflection of human behaviors. Mimetic approach is appropriate to be used in psychological literary research since this approach seeks to see how well a work adjust with the real world.

Tess Stevens was born and grew up in South London, Britain. She lived with her family in a brothel. Her mother, Grace, rent her to rich men when she was eleven years old. From this man she endured sexual abuse. In her adult life, Stevens followed her mother‟s step by opening a brothel. She then met Christine Keeler, the Kray twins, Myra Hindley, famous actors and politicians.

Although many books about sexual abuse have been written, Tess Stevens‟ autobiography entitled Sold is more interesting because the main character (the writer herself) experience abuses, talks about the life of abused victim in a brothel, and talks about women‟s struggle in gaining wealth. Among the issues being talk in the autobiography, abuse is the most dominant issue in the autobiography entitled Sold. Tess experienced several abuses such as physical, sexual, neglect, and psychological abuses. She receives the abuses from her mother, step-fathers, friends, caregiver, teacher, partners, and punters. Due to these unpleasant treatments, she suffers from psychological problems in her childhood. These experiences do not only affect her childhood and adult life, but also her personality development. So, it is worthy to discuss the effects of the abuses on personality development.

B. Focus of the Study

Sold is an autobiography written by Tess Stevens. It was first published in Great Britain in 2008. There are several issues discussed in this autobiography. Among them are poverty, women‟s struggle, abuse, and personality development.

This research focuses on psychological aspects of Tess Stevens' autobiography in order to get information about abuse, the causes, the effects in general, and the effects on personality development. There are several effects of the abuses, such as genophobia, juvenile delinquency and adult crime, physical wound in certain area of the body, and difficulties in socializing. These effects affect Tess‟ personality development. It is interesting to analyze Tess Stevens‟ autobiography since an autobiography tells about the whole life of a person. By analyzing this autobiography, it will help the researcher gain more information about Tess‟ personality development.

The researcher analyzes the personality development of Tess as the abused victim by using Erikson‟s theory of the eight psychosocial stages. According to Erikson, human experiences eight psychosocial stages in life such as infancy, early childhood, play age, school age, adolescence, young adulthood, adulthood, and old age. The beginning of each stage will influence the next stages. As an example, the abuses which Tess experienced in her school age such as being sold to punters, affect her adulthood stage on how she treated her daughter.

Based on the focus of this study stated above, the researcher formulates four research questions as follows.

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1. What abuses are experienced by Tess?

2. What are the causes of the abuses experienced by Tess? 3. What are the effects of the abuses experienced by Tess?

4. What are the effects of the abuses on Tess‟ personality development?

C. Objectives of the Study

The aims of this research are: 1. to find the abuses experienced by Tess,

2. to find the causes of the abuses experienced by Tess, 3. to find the effects of the abuses experienced by Tess, and

4. to find the effects of the abuses on Tess‟ personality development.

D. Significance of the Study

Based on the background and the objectives of this study as stated above, there are some benefits could be achieved by this study. Those benefits are:

1. Theoretically

This research is intended to give better understanding on literary study. It gives and broadens one‟s perspectives on personality development, abuse and psychological phenomena in a literary work. This research is also expected to give more information and knowledge on how to apply Erikson‟s psychosocial theory in analyzing a literary work. Hopefully this research is useful and can be used as a reference for other researchers.

2. Practically

First, this research may broaden the knowledge of the readers about abuse. Readers will be aware that there are many forms of abuses and each abuse could bring negative effects to a person. Second, this research may create a better understanding for the readers to understand human personality development.

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CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter deals with literature review. This chapter aims to give explanation on the theories used, previous research findings, and the conceptual framework of this research.

A.Theoretical Background 1. Literature and Psychology

Psychology of literature is interdisciplinary between psychology and literature. Since both psychology and literature deals with the world and human as a social and living being, the use of psychological approach is considered important in literary research. The use of psychology is also considered common in interpreting literature (Moghaddam, 2004: 512). According to Moghaddam (2004: 516) psychology and literature have a difference. Psychology deals with the real world and human behavior, while literature deals with the imagined world and human behavior. But this difference only differs in a matter of factuality, not on the object.

The use of psychological approach in analyzing literary works is not a new thing in a research. An observation done by some psychologist including Freud, stated that the idea of „psychology is literature‟ is not a new thing (Moghaddam, 2004: 519). Freud himself actually did not create the principles of psychoanalysis; he only found it in human beings. Freud did not create all theory of human behaviors; he only explained the principles of human behaviors. The behaviors of

human beings would still exist whether Freud did or did not create that principle (Tyson, 2006: 37). So, literary texts dealing with human being or human behaviors are included as psychoanalytic, and all criticism is included as psychological criticism because all criticism and theory proceed from assumptions about the psychology of the humans who make or experience or are portrayed in literature (Holland, 1990: 29).

Literature is a mirror of life since it reflects the reality. Literary works are reflection of human behavior and the world. Since literature is a reflection of human behavior and the real world, the mimetic approach is appropriate to be used. This approach seeks to see how well a work adjust with the real world. The term mimesis is derived from the Greek mimesis, meaning to imitate. According to Abrams (1953: 8) the explanation of art is imitation of aspects of the universe. Painting, poetry, music, dance, and sculpture are all imitations according to Socrates (in Abrams, 1953: 8). Through the eighteen century, art is believed to be an imitation. Hurd (in Abrams, 1953: 11-12) said in his ‘Discourse on Poetical Imitation’ that „All poetry, to speak with Aristotle and the Greek critics is imitation‟. In addition, Aristotle (in Abrams, 1953: 9) also defines literature as imitation. Epic poetry, tragedy, comedy, and dithyrambic poetry are imitation.

In relation to psychology and literature, there are three important elements (Abrams in Minderop, 2013: 61). The first element is that researcher has to observe the author to explain the work. Second, understand the author regardless its work. The way to do this is by analyzing the biography of the author to

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reconstruct the author from its life, and use the author‟s work as a life record. Third, reading a literary work to find the mirror of personality of the author.

2. Erik Erikson‟s Psychosocial Theory a. The principle of psychosocial theory

Erik Homburger Erikson was born in Germany in 1902. He was a psychoanalyst whose aim was to extend Freud‟s perception on personality development. Erikson graduated from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute before coming to the United States in 1933. He became a citizen of the United States in 1939 and contributed greatly to literature on psychoanalysis, personality theory, educational practice, and social anthropology. Erikson‟s post-Freudian theory develops Freud‟s developmental stages into adolescence, adulthood, and old age. According to Erikson, each of the stages has its influence on personality development.

According to Erikson in (Feist and Feist, 2008: 246) “ego is the partially unconscious organizing agency that synthesizes our present experiences with past self-identities and also with anticipated images of self. He defined the ego as a person‟s ability to unify experiences and actions in an adaptive manner.” Erikson (in Feist and Feist, 2008: 246) “stated the three interrelated aspects of ego: the body ego, the ego ideal, and ego identity.”

The body egorefers to experiences with our body, a way to see our physical self differently from others. The ego idealrepresents the image of us compared to another ideal ego. The ideal ego is responsible for the satisfaction of our physical

self and ego identity. Ego identity is the images that we have in our social roles. The changes in our body ego, ego ideal and ego identity may occur in any life stages.

Although inborn capacities are important in personality development, ego is mostly formed by the society. Erikson‟s view that personality is influenced by the social and historical factors is contrast to Freud‟s beliefs that personality is mostly influenced by the biological factor. According to Erikson, humans have their ego since they were born, but to realize it, the society is needed. One of Erikson‟s contributions to the personality theory is the extension of Freud‟s development theory up to school age, youth, adulthood, and old age.

Erikson believes that ego develops in each of the life stages according to the epigenetic principle. In epigenetic, the growth of the organs of a baby develops step by step. Similarly to this principle, ego also has its own stages and develops according to its time and each of the ego develop after the previous step is done. Erikson (in Feist and Feist, 2008: 248) described the epigenetic principle by saying that “anything that grows has a ground plan, and that out of this ground plan the parts arise, each part having its time of special ascendancy, until all parts have arisen to form a functioning whole”. In addition, “epigenesist means that one characteristic overlaps one another in space and time” (Evans in Feist and Feist, 2008: 248).

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b. The stages of psychosocial development

There are eight psychosocial development stages according to Erikson; infancy, early childhood, play age, school age, adolescent, young adulthood, adulthood and old age. All of these stages follow the epigenetic principle, one stage occurs after another stage has been experienced.

Each of the life stages has its own interaction of opposites called contrary disposition. It is a conflict between the syntonic (harmony) element and dystonic (conflict) element. As an example, in adolescence, people will experience identity versus role confusion. Identity is the syntonic element since it is a positive element, and role confusion could be considered as the dystonic element since it is the cause of the problem of this stage. Although both elements contradict each other, both are needed for a person to make him/her able to develop in life. Identity could make a person stand firm in life and ease him/her on pursuing life goals, since he/she knows who she is and her objectives to be born in this world. While role confusion is needed because it could make a person think deeply on his/her identity and the purpose in life. Trial and error in searching their identity is a normal and a positive matter in creating a better personality. In each stage, the conflict between the dystonic and syntonic elements results in the production of basic strength. As an example, the conflict between identity and role confusion leads to the emergence of fidelity. This occurs when a person experiences more syntonic element than dystonic element. On the contrary, too little basic strength will lead to the emergence of core pathology. A person

who does not have fidelity will experience role denial in a form of diffidence and defiance (Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 258-259).

Erikson believed that human beings experience eight psychosocial stages in life. These stages also have their own basic strength and core pathology and influence one another in the development of personality. Here are Erikson‟s psychosocial development stages.

1) trust vs. mistrust.

This stage occurs in the first year of life. The mother of a child becomes the most important person at this stage because when a child was born to this world, he/she feel uncertain and insecure of this world. A child also needs a person who could feed his/her needs, so, a mother would be the right person to fulfill it and make the child comfortable. At this stage, a child learns to either trust or mistrust the outside world. Infants must experience hunger, pain, and discomfort as well as the good conditions in life. By having both painful and pleasurable experiences, infants will learn to struggle in this world in order to gain satisfaction. In can be said that both syntonic and dystonic should take part equally in life because it is important in the development of a person. A mother, who often provides her child‟s needs such as giving foods or changing their diapers when it is wet, could create a sense of trust from the child. On the contrary, if his/her mother do not provide and could not understand the needs of the infant, he/she would feel uncertain about her mother and soon lose the sense of trust towards his/her mother. Erikson believes that both trust and mistrust are important in personality development. Erikson told Richard Evans (in Feist and

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Feist, 2008: 252) that “when we enter a situation, we must be able to differentiate how much we can trust and how much we must mistrust, and I use mistrust in the sense of a readiness for danger and an anticipation of discomfort”. The conflict between trust and mistrust could create a basic strength called hope if the trust an infant receives is greater than mistrust. But, if an infant does not receive enough hope, he /she will experience withdrawal (the core pathology at this stage). Withdrawal will cause an infant to be inferior in facing the world.

2) autonomy vs. shame and doubt.

This stage occurs in the age of 2 up to 3 years old. At this stage, a child will experience autonomy versus shame and doubt. Autonomy is the syntonic element of this stage, while shame and doubt are the dystonic. Similar to the first stage, this stage also needs both autonomy and shame and doubt to be included in a development. Children who lack of autonomy will found difficulties to develop in the next stages. Autonomy develops from the basic trust of children. Trusting their surroundings is important in order to create a secure feeling and create self-confidence. From the self-confidence which develops in a child, he/she will become autonomous. On the contrary, if he/she does not have enough self-confidence, shame and doubt which is a dystonic element will develop. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will, which is the basic strength of early childhood stage. In this stage, children only achieve their basic will which is imperfect. Their „will‟ would develop through the next stages of life. Those who do not have enough „will‟ might express „compulsion‟.

3) initiative vs. guilt.

This stage occurs in the play age, from 3 up to 5 years old. Erikson (1968) stated that, in addition to identifying with their parents, preschool-age children are developing locomotion, language skills, curiosity, imagination, and the ability to set goals. At this stage a child started to play role on being other people. Play age is also the stage in which children are developing a conscience and beginning to attach labels such as right and wrong to their behavior. At this stage children gain more knowledge and have broader imagination. Due to their develop knowledge and imagination, they started to show curiosity towards the world they live in. They try to explore the world to fulfill their curiosity. This curiosity will lead to the emergence of initiative. If their initiative is being held back, they will develop a sense of guilt on their actions or initiative. Too many initiatives could create problems to children. These initiatives could create chaos since they act only according to their desire without concerning on the norms which the society adhered. Both initiative and guilt should equally felt by children. Too many guilt could also make the child become inferior and restricted. A form of restriction is

inhibition which is the antipathy in this stage. The conflict between initiative and

guilt resulted in a basic strength of purpose. At this age, children starting to have their purpose in their acts, and they creates their own target in their activities in order to fulfill their purpose.

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4) industry vs. inferiority.

This stage occurs at the school age, from 6 up to 12 or 13 years old. At this stage, the world which children interact is broader; it includes family, peers, teachers, and other adult models. In normal development, children try to read and write, to hunt and fish, or to learn the skills required by their culture. One of the reasons they did this is because they wanted to get attention and recognition from their surroundings.

According to Erikson (in Thomas, 1985: 241), children during the elementary school years need and enjoy hours of make-believe games and play, but they become dissatisfied with too much of this and want to do something worthwhile. They want to earn recognition by producing something, to gain the satisfaction of completing work by perseverance.

At this stage children start to judge themselves whether they are competent or incompetent. If adults give tasks that children have interest in and could accomplish, and if adult give guidance to children in accomplishing their tasks, children could become industrious. But if children are being disappointed, such as being labeled as a failure by teachers or adults, they will become inferior. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of competence. Competence is the confidence of using physical ability and cognitive to solve the problems occur in school age. Competence becomes the basis for Cooperative participation in adult‟s productive life (Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 256). If the industry and inferiority are not balance, children tend to give up easily and spend more time on unproductive activity called inertia. Inertia is the core pathology of this stage.

5) identity vs. role confusion.

This stage occurs in the adolescence age. A period starting from puberty up to young adulthood (14-18). Erikson gave great attention on his writings on this stage than at any other stages (Thomas, 1985: 242). This stage considered to be important because at this stage children have to search for their identity. If they do not find their true identity and purpose they would be confused in the next stages about their roles. Children at this stage started to find the roles which are appropriate for them and practice the roles which they think best for them, while struggling in the search of identity. So, adolescence is considered as the age of trial and error (Feist and Feist, 2008: 256).

During this stage, the experiences of the previous stages give benefits to the development in the age of adolescent.

The sense of ego identity, then, is the accrued confidence that one‟s ability to maintain inner sameness and continuity is matched by the sameness and continuity of one‟s meaning for others. Thus, self -esteem…grows to be a conviction that one is learning effective steps toward a tangible future, that one is developing a defined personality within a social reality which one understands (Erikson in Thomas, 1985: 242)

The dystonic element of this stage is role confusion. Youth at this stage is being confused of their identity and purpose. To overcome this problem, sometimes they identify themselves to their surroundings that they treated as their idol. In addition, they join some groups or gangsters which they think fit them. After they identify themselves with their surroundings, they then stereotype themselves in their style of speech, body language, and fashion. Sometimes this identity confusion could make youth become fanatic in their groups and ideals,

21

because they think that the ideals or point of view which is different to the one they believe is wrong. Another effect of identity confusion is shown in forms of diffidence or defiance ( Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 259).

5) intimacy vs. isolation.

This stage occurs in the young adulthood. This stage occurs from 19-30 years of age. At this stage, young adults experience a psychosocial crisis between intimacy and isolation. Intimacy is the syntonic element and isolation is the dystonic element of young adulthood stage. Intimacy could be defined as the ability to fuse one‟s identity with another without worrying to lose its own identity (Feist and Feist, 2008: 259). Intimacy could only be achieved after a person succeeded in forming a stable ego. A stable intimacy could lead to a serious relationship with others, since he/she knows the responsibility or the role he/she has to fulfill in a true relationship that is by showing affection and commitment to his/her partner. Isolation is the dystonic element of this stage. According to Erikson (in Feist and Feist, 2008: 259) isolation is “the incapacity to take chances with one‟s identity by sharing true intimacy”.

The conflict between intimacy versus isolation emerges the basic strength called love. It is the sense of care which mature male and female have (Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 260). In a relationship, isolation still occurs because an individual has a right to have his/her own privacy which should be hidden from the partner, and this degree of isolation is required in keeping his/her own identity from fusing with his/her partner.

The antipathy of love is exclusivity. Although exclusivity is considered as the pathology of this stage, it is needed in a certain degree in order to maintain one‟s identity from fusing or losing due to a relationship/interaction with others. Although exclusivity is needed in a certain degree, the reason it is considered as the pathology of this stage is due to its negative effect that is causing people to be lacking of teamwork and communication which is required in building an intimate relationship.

6) generativity vs. stagnation.

This stage occurs in adulthood, in the age of 31 up to 60 years old. Generativity versus stagnation occurs at this stage. Erikson defined generativity as the generation of new beings, new products, and new ideas (Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 260). So, in this stage, adults started to show their attention to their surroundings by guiding the next generation, raising children, creating new products, and creating new ideas. This shows that a person is changing from becoming a child who previously received something from their surroundings, such as being cared by their parents, to being an adult who gives their contribution for their surroundings.

As stated previously, the stages in Erikson‟s psychosocial stages influence one another. At this stage, generativity grows due to the previously stages such as young adulthood and adolescent. In young adulthood, a person needs intimacy in order to gain love which is the basic strength of this stage. Intimacy itself can only

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be achieved if someone agrees and able to fuse his/her ego with his/her partner, whereas, in adulthood, fusing ego identity with a broader scope is essential.

The antithesis of generativity is self-absorption and stagnation. Self-absorption and stagnation are interconnected to each other. As an example, adults who are not willing to show their attention towards their surroundings or who only care about them would be stagnate.

The conflict between generativity versus stagnation would result in the emergence of „care‟ which is the basic strength of adulthood. Erikson defined „care‟ as a commitment that continuously broadens to take care of the persons, products, and ideas, but previously he/she has to learn to care for (Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 261). The antipathy of care is rejectivity, the pathology of adulthood. Rejectivity is the unwillingness to care for person or particular groups (Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 261).

7) integrity vs. despair.

This stage occurs in the old age, around 60 and above. At this stage, a person will experience integrity versus despair. At this stage, a person starts to lose his/her productivity, but he/she can still take part in being care and guiding others due to his/her experiences in the past years. Despair which is the dystonic quality at this age often emerge due to some external factors such as losing partner, losing friends, losing physical strength, etc. Due to this condition, a person could feel hopeless such as disgusted, depressed, contempt for others,

(Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 262). But if a person has a strong ego identity, the syntonic quality of integrity may dominate.

The conflict between integrity and despair resulted in wisdom, which is the basic virtue of this stage. Erikson (in Feist and Feist, 2008: 263) defined wisdom as “informed and detached concern with life itself in the face of death itself”. Although the mental and physical ability have decline, the wisdom which a person has at this stage could contribute in educating and guiding the next generation. The Antipathy of wisdom is disdain.

Table 1: Erikson‟s Psychosocial Crisis Theory of Human Development.

No. Age Psychosocial Crisis Basic

Strength

Core Pathology

1. Infancy

(1st year) Trust vs. Mistrust Hope Withdrawal

2. Early Childhood (Age 2-3)

Autonomy vs.

Shame and Doubt Will Compulsion

3. Play Age

(Age 3-5) Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose Inhibition

4. School Age

(Age 6-13)

Industry vs.

Inferiority Competence Inertia

5. Adolescence (Age 14-18)

Identity vs. Role

Confusion Fidelity

Role Repudiation 6. Young Adulthood

(Age 19-30)

Intimacy vs.

Isolation Love Exclusivity

7. Adulthood

(Age 31-60)

Generativity vs.

Stagnation Care Rejection

8. Old Age

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3. Abuse

a. Definition of abuse

According to the Community Against Violence, Inc. (2016) Abuse is an action which intimidates harms, manipulates a person‟s mind, and results in physical or psychological damage. Abuse may occur anywhere. It may occur in high-educated or low-educated society, in high economic or low economic classes, in any races and religions, in families or in the neighborhood. Abuse also could be done by both men and women. Many viewed child sexual abuse as a male crime. However, significant minorities of children are abused by female (Turton, 2008: 1).

In the year 2000, more than three-quarters of a million children were abused and neglected. According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, the victims of abuse may suffer from learning problems, depression, and stress disorders. Beside psychological problems, physical problems such as wounds may occur due to abuse. Generally, there are four types of abuses; they are physical, psychological maltreatment, neglect, and sexual abuse (Corby, 2006: 86).

b. Types of abuse 1) physical abuse.

Today in the United States, psychologists, social workers, and the judicial system generally define physical child abuse as “the non-accidental injury of a child inflicted by a parent or caregiver (such as a grandparent, foster parent, legal

guardian, babysitter, or nanny)” (Olive, 2007: 53-54). Physical abuse may include striking, hitting, beating, pushing, shoving, shaking, slapping, kicking, pinching, and burning. In addition, inappropriate use of drugs and physical restraints, force-feeding, and physical punishment of any kind also are examples of physical abuse. The younger the child is, the more helpless the child when suffering from abuse.

2) psychological maltreatment.

Psychological maltreatment or psychological abuse is a continuing acts or behaviors of the abusers in a purpose to be destructive to a person (Olive, 2007: 67). It is usually shown in a form of rejection, terrorization, isolation, corruption, etc. Psychological abuse could be done verbally and non-verbally. An example of verbal abuse is swearing. Although swearing does not leave any physical marks to a person, but mentally it does. Non-verbal abuse includes rejection, isolation, terrorization, and corruption. Another purpose of psychological abuse is to control a person or to manipulate a person in order for the abused to follow the abuser‟s wishes. Hart, Brassard, and Karlson (in Howe, 2005: 94-6) stated the six major subtypes of psychological maltreatment, they are:

a) Spurning: humiliating and causing shame to the child

b) Terrorizing: threatening to hurt, abandon, or kill the child to make the child behave or do what the abusers wants. Sometimes a child might be placed in a scary or dangerous place. Some acts of terrorizing involve violence.

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c) Isolating: keeping the child away from other people/group such as keeping away from their friends or not letting them go to school. Children might be kept in room most of the time.

d) Exploiting and corrupting: encourages children to become anti-social, destructive, and lack of moral.

e) Denying the child emotional responsiveness: The parents do not want to respond to their children‟s need of love and attention. Whenever their children need their parents‟ attention and praise, the parents refuse to give it. f) Failing to meet the child‟s medical and health needs: This is an abuse occurs

when parents do not want to provide medical need for children when needed.

3) neglect.

According to Olive (2007: 67) neglect is an act of parents being ignorant to children that could cause harm to children. Neglect can be physical (not giving food and clothing), medical (not giving medical treatment when needed), educational (not giving enough formal nor non-formal education), motor (not giving child toys or puzzles to play in order to develop motor skills), and emotional (not giving and showing love to children). Neglect occurs when a caregiver did not provide the basic needs to a child who is/are responsible to. Caregivers/parents who could be categorized as neglectful are when they have the capability of caring a child/elder but refuse to do so. “In some cases „neglect slowly and persistently eats away at children‟s spirits until they have little will to

connect with others or explore the world‟” (Erickson and Egeland in Howe, 2005: 111).

4) sexual abuse.

Sexual child abuse is an abuse which is done by an adult towards a child which involves sexual activity. The sexual activity can include kissing, touching the breasts, buttocks, or genitals, and sexual intercourse (Olive, 2007: 78). In a sexual abuse, the abuser is the one who wanted to do the sexual activity. On the other hand, the victim or the child does not have the same interest to do so. This difference in interest could lead the abuser to force the victim to fulfill his/her act. Later this action will be called rape. Besides being done physically, sexual abuse may also be done mentally such as exposing the genital to the victim, taking a picture of a person while forced being naked, and speaking of sexual activities.

c. Causes of the abuses

The abuses which happen have several causes. According to Olive (2007) and Corby (2006), there are several causes which leads to the act of abuse such as parents having stress problems, lack of interrelationship between the parents or caregivers and the child, poverty, the vulnerability of the abused, drugs and alcohol, parent‟s divorce, the environment of the abusers, gender inequality, and abusers‟ past experience.

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1) parents having stress problems.

Dubanoski et al (in Corby, 2006: 164) stated that high level of stress is one of the causes of physical abuse. Those who lack of stress management control which may occur due to stress they get from their works may release their frustration towards children. If this frustration occurs continuously, parents or caregivers may abuse their children. As an example, a caregiver or a mother who works all day long may feel frustrated if her child keeps on asking for studying assistance during the night since the mother felt tired. As a result, the mother would abuse her child physically by slapping the child. Some believe that parenting is a tiresome duty. They believe that taking care of their children does not bring any benefits to them. Since they do not have any benefit and felt unrewarded from raising a child, they may insult their child.

2) lack of interrelationship between the parents or caregivers and the child.

Lacking of interrelationship between both parents and children could make the child defiant or disobedient (Olive, 2007: 54). The more disobedient the child becomes, the more frustration the parent feel. Again, this anger and frustration leads to abuse. As an example, if a parent views his or her child as someone who is naughty and lack of manner, he/she may strike the child. The cycle of misbehavior and abuse is called the interactional process (Olive, 2007: 54). There is a connection between child‟s behavior and parent‟s reaction.

3) poverty.

Poverty is one of the causes of abuse and neglect ( Olive, 2007: 68). Gilhan and his colleagues (in Corby, 2006: 131) discovered that there is a correlation between male unemployment and physical abuse of children in a survey of nearly 7,000 cases in Strathclyde in the early 1990‟s. People who are in low economic level felt more stress than those in stable financial conditions. The greater the level of stress, the greater the possibility of abuse will occur. The 1996 National Incidence study found that children from poor families were likely to experience abuses than other classes above (Sediak and Broadhurst in Corby 2006: 131). Although some lower class family experience neglect, middle and higher class family may also experience neglect, but it is more likely to be experienced by lower class family. Those in the low economic level sometimes run into alcohol or drug to relief themselves from stress due to poverty. Parents who suffer from stress due to poverty may have less interest in nurturing their children and may also abuse them.

4) the vulnerability of the abused.

Those with young age are easier in risk of being abuse by parents or caregivers. This happens because children at young ages, commonly three or younger, are defenseless and weak physically. This makes it easier for adults to abuse them. According to the U.S.Department of Health and Human Services in the year 2004, “children age three or younger experienced the highest rate of abuse” (Olive, 2007: 55). In addition, the longer term ill effects, more likely to be

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experienced by pre-puberty abuse victims than adolescence victims (Russell in Corby, 2006: 205).

5) drugs and alcohol.

Children of alcoholics or drug addicts are often psychologically damaged by their parents‟ abuse and the attention it takes away from them. In Britain, children who lived with alcoholic parents may suffer from behavioral problems, school problems, emotional disturbances, lower self-esteem, anxiety, depression, and disrupted routines which are the effects of substance abuse (Kroll and Taylor in Corby, 2006: 142).

6) parent‟s divorce.

When a parent has to take care of a child by themselves, he/she might feel more stressful since it would make his/her life more difficult. By taking care of a child alone could increase his/her burden. This will lead parent to abuse the child psychologically. Factor such as parental divorce can cause parents to direct their inability to cope with stressors toward the children (Olive, 2007: 68).

7) the environment of the abusers.

Adults who live in unhealthy environments are likely not learning to take care a child properly (Olive, 2007: 68). Parents or caregivers who neglect their children tend to be isolated and do not have many friends. They do not have adequate knowledge in caring for their children. According to a study done by Coohey in (Corby, 2006: 144), stated the three variables in assessing the impacts

of isolation, they are number of network contacts, the amount of received support and the parents‟ perception of that support. She found that isolation and neglect have strong correlation.

8) gender inequality.

According to Olive (2007: 81) majority 95 to 98 percent of people who sexually abuse children are male with victims of both male and female. Another prove was stated by Finkelhor (in Corby, 2006: 127) that 95 percent of girls and 80 percent of boys In the United States are sexually abused by males. So, males are more likely to perform such abuse. Between 1980 and 1986, 8 out of 411 children were sexually abused by females, according to a report from the Great Osmond Street Hospital for sick children. It means that male dominates in the act of sexual abuse (Ben Tovim et al. in Corby, 2006:127). The sexual abuses launched by men over women are the media for gaining control over women (Dominelli in Corby, 2006: 175). Sexual abuse is also seen as an example of institutionalized male power over females (Corby, 2006: 175).

9) abusers‟ past experience.

As a result of being abused in his/her lives, the ex-victims of abuse wanted to satisfy or express their lust of power and control which they could not fulfill when being abused. These abusers look for a medium of fulfilling their lust that is by abusing children. An example is in the case of sexual abuse, according to Groth and Burgess (in Corby, 2006: 135) “that 32 per cent of a group of 106 child

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molesters reported some form of sexual trauma in childhood”. Lewis et al (in Corby, 2006: 194) also found that adults who offend and abuse children had been violently abused themselves.

d. Effects of the abuses

The abuses which occurs and experienced by the victims could leads to several effects. According to Olive (2007), Corby (2006), Hunter (2014), Gold, Sullivan, and Lewis (in the Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2013) Stated that there are several effects of the abuses such as physical wound in certain area of the body, having difficulties in coping with anger, difficulties in studying, difficulties in socializing, poor physical health, juvenile delinquency and adult crime, consuming illegal drugs and alcoholic, and genophobia.

1) physical wound in certain area of the body.

Bruises might be the result of physical abuse or due to other conditions. Bruises are common in active, healthy children. However, bruises are also a common finding in abused children (Thompson in AIFS, 2014). Bruises in certain area of the body such as bruises with particular imprints of belt mark, iron mark, bite mark, or broom mark certainly are the result of physical abuse. Broken bones also are a result of physical abuse (Olive, 2007: 55). While bruises around the genital area, bruised around the breast for girls, transmitted disease, and anal bleeding are due to sexual abuse. In their research, Jaudes and Morris (in Corby, 2006: 204) found that from 138 sexually abused children based on the data in the

hospital between 1979 and 1987, found that one-third of the children had sexually transmitted disease.

2) having difficulties in coping with anger.

The victims of abuse sometimes have difficulties in coping with anger. Their anger are sometimes buried deep inside their hearts and not expressed freely since the victims are afraid to do so in front of the abusers. As a consequence, abused victims may lose control of their anger. “A physically abused child who becomes angry over something may show physical aggression toward other children, animals, or adults” (Olive, 2007: 57).

3) difficulties in studying.

Some victims of abuse find difficulties in studying. Abuse and neglect in the early life could affect the infants‟ development in the areas of speech and language (Wolfe in AIFS, 2014). When the victims of abuse enter preschool or kindergarten, learning problems show up as poor performance in school (Olive, 2007: 57). Research also shows that maltreated children have lower educational achievement than other children (Gilbert et al in AIFS, 2014).

4) difficulties in socializing.

The victims of abuse may have difficulties in socializing and trusting other people (Olive, 2007: 58). Since they often suffer from abuse, they began not to trust other people easily. Abused people tend not to feel safe when they are

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socializing with others; they feel worried by their surroundings. The victims of abuse also feel being unwanted and unloved. They began to think that they are not worthy living in this world and would be useless for other people. This belief makes them avoid social interactions. Difficulties in socializing also may be due to the result of the treatments and the lack of attention given by the parents.

5) poor physical health.

Poor physical health is due to the lack of attention given by the parents or caregivers. Neglected children are not being taught by their parents how to take care of their health. As a result they suffer from various diseases. Children who are neglected may suffer from diabetes, malnutrition and lung problems (Widom, et al., in AIFS, 2014).

6) juvenile delinquency and adult crime.

Adult who suffer from abuse in his/her childhood may grow up into criminals (Olive, 2007: 69). Studies found the correlation between child abuse and crime in the previous stages. Children who suffer from abuse are nine times more likely to involve in crime (Gold, Sullivan, & Lewis in the Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2013). “Prospective studies showed that about 20 per cent of abused children went on to commit crimes as juveniles (Corby. 2006: 193-194).

7) consuming illegal drugs and alcoholic.

The victims of abuse may turn into an alcoholic person or consuming illegal drugs (Olive, 2007: 69). These are done in order to escape from the bitter world they live in, since alcohol and drugs could make them lose their consciousness and feel more relax in a certain way. (Cohen et al (in Corby, 2006: 193) found that 178 US and Australian hospital patients of drug and alcohol addicts found that 84 per cent of the patients were the victims of physical abuse and neglect in their childhood.

8) genophobia.

Victims of sexual abuse may have phobias due to sex (Olive, 2007: 80). Genophobia is a term used for the trauma of sex (taken from http://www.allaboutcounseling.com/library/genophobia-coitophobia/.) Those who suffer from genophobia may be people who suffer from sexual abuse in his/her previous age. Those who suffer from genophobia might be panic or disgust when they are open to sexual activities. Briere et al (in Corby, 2006: 201) found that women who are sexually abused in childhood are twice more likely to experience fear, anxiety, and nightmares.

B. Previous Research Findings

There are three works of thesis in the English Language and Literature Study Program of the State University of Yogyakarta which used Erikson‟s psychosocial theory. The first thesis is Katrin Rahma Pandansari‟s thesis entitled

37

The Cause and Effect in Melinda’s Traumatic Experiences: A Psychosocial Analysis in Anderson’s Speak which was written in 2014. In this research, she focuses on how sexual harassment affects Melinda‟s psychological condition and how is the impact toward her psychosocial development.

The second thesis is Eka Setiawati‟s thesis entitled The Psychological

Effects of World War II on Ira Hayes and John Bradley’s Characters in James

Bradley’s Flags of Our Fathers. This thesis was written in 2011. It focuses on identifying the psychological changes of the characters in Flags of Our Fathers as the effect of traumatic experience in war.

The third thesis is Irsha Karisha Puspitasari‟s thesis entitled Esperanza’s Personality Development as Reflected in Sandra Cisneros’ the House on Mango

Street. This thesis was written in 2012. This research focuses on identifying the

personality development of Esperanza and the factors that affects her personality. The theory used by the previous researchers is similar to this research; they used Erik Erikson‟s psychosocial theory. Although the theory which is used is similar, the focuses of the other three previous researches are different. The first research focuses on the effects of sexual harassment towards a character‟s psychological condition and psychosocial development. Then, the second research focuses on identifying psychological changes due to traumatic experience in war. The third research focuses on identifying personality development of a character and the factors that affect the personality. Meanwhile, this research focuses on finding the types, the causes, the effects of the abuses experienced by Tess and the effects of the abuses on her personality development in Tess Stevens‟ Sold.

C. Conceptual Framework

Tess Stevens Sold is an autobiography which tells the lives of Tess being abused by her mother. Many types of abuse are experienced by Tess throughout her lives mostly in her childhood. Besides being abused by her mother, Tess is also abused by her stepfather, caregiver, school teacher, friends, and partners, and the punters. This research analyzes the abuses, the causes which Tess experienced, and its effects in general and on her personality development.

This research uses the mimetic approach because the characters or the setting in a literary work is an imitation of the reality. Psychology of literature is used because psychology and literature contains a similarity that it focuses on analyzing human being. Since both psychology and literature focus on analyzing humans, and literature reflects the reality, the mimetic approach is appropriate to be used in this research.

The researcher used Erikson‟s psychosocial development theory in conducting this research. According to this theory human undergoes eight psychosocial stages. The stages are infancy, early childhood, play age, school age, adolescence, young adulthood, adulthood, and old age. In each of these stages there are syntonic and dystonic qualities.

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Figure 1: Conceptual Framework Mimetic

Literature

Psychology of Literature

Erikson‟s Psychosocial Theory of the Development

Stages: 1. Trust vs. Mistrust 2. Autonomy vs. Shame

and Doubt

3. Initiative vs. Guilt 4. Industry vs. Inferiority 5. Identity vs. Role

Confusion

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation 7. Generativity vs.

Stagnation

8. Integrity vs. Despair

Research Question 4. What are the effects of

the abuses on Tess‟ personality development? Abuse Theories by

Corby, Howe, Olive, Turton, Harris, Hunter,

Community Against Violence, Inc., Child Welfare Information

Gateway, and allaboutcounseling.com.

Research Question 3. What are the effects of the abuses experienced

by Tess? Research Question 1.

What abuses are experienced by Tess?

Research Question 2. What are the causes

of the abuses experienced by Tess?

Tess Stevens‟ Sold Human

Psychology Society

40

A. Research Design

This research has several purposes; to find the abuses experienced by Tess, to find the causes of the abuses experienced by Tess, to find the effects of the abuses experienced by Tess, and to find the effects of the abuses on Tess‟ personality development in the autobiography entitled Sold. The researcher uses the qualitative research method in conducting this research. According to Hayllar and Veal (1996: 30) “Qualitative research methods are concerned with collecting information which doesn‟t involve numbers.” “The aim of qualitative research is to understand a particular social situation, event, role, group, or interaction” (L Kocke. Spirduso, & Silverman in Creswell: 226).

In this study, the researcher used content-analysis in analyzing the autobiography. According to Hayllar and Veal (1996: 36) content analysis is a method that uses three types of data: written, visual, and spoken material. The written data include historical documents, government policies, speeches, magazines, newspaper, etc. Visual data include television, documentaries, and films.

B. The Sources of the Data

The data of this research are words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs which are taken from an autobiography entitled Sold, which have correlation with

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the objectives of this research. Sold was written by Tess Stevens in 2008. It consists of 24 chapters and 336 pages. It was published in Great Britain by Hodder & Stoughton.

C. Instruments of the Research

The main instrument of the research is the researcher himself. According to Lincoln and Guba (in Vanderstoep and Johnston, 2009: 188-189) the best instrument for qualitative naturalistic inquiry is humans because they are responsive and interpretative towards the research. Meanwhile, non-human instruments are not. The researcher also collected, analyzed, and reported the result of the research based on his interpretation.

The researcher used table sheets as the secondary instrument to ease the work during the process of analysis. The table sheets contain the data which were noted and recorded from Tess Stevens‟ Sold. The table sheets are presented below.

Table 2: The Types of Abuse Experienced by Tess

No. Category Page Quotation Meaning

1

Table 3: The Causes of the Abuses Experienced by Tess

No. Category Page Quotation Meaning

Table 4: The Effects of the Abuses Experienced by Tess

Table 5: The Effects of the Abuses on Tess‟ Personality Development

D. The Technique of the Data Collection

The researcher used several steps in collecting the data. The steps were reading, re-reading, note taking, and categorizing the data. First, the researcher read the autobiography entitled Sold written by Tess Stevens to get understanding of the content of the book. Second, the researcher re-read the autobiography several times to get better understanding. Third, the researcher took notes of several important information or data which were related to the topic of the research. Fourth, the information or data which has been noted were categorized into four categories. To answer the first question, the researcher found the abuses No.

Category Page Quotation Meaning

1

No. Category Page Quotation Meaning

43

experienced by Tess and categorized the abuses according to its types. To answer the second question, the researcher found the causes of abuse and categorized them according to their causes. Then, to answer the third question, the researcher found the effects of the abuses experienced by Tess and categorized them according to the effects. Finally, to answer the fourth question, the researcher found the effects of the abuses on Tess‟ personality development and categorized them according to the effects on Tess‟ personality development.

E.Data Analysis

The processes of data analysis are listed below.

1. First, the researcher read and re-read the categorized data to get better understanding of the data which have correlation with the research.

2. Second, the researcher arranged and sorted the categorized data according to its order, which is by sorting the pages of the data according to the most significant order.

3. Third, the researcher interpreted the data by giving further explanation and giving meaning by interrelating the data and the theories used in the research. 4. Fourth, the researcher reported the findings in the thesis.

F. Data Trustworthiness

Triangulation was applied to achieve the validity and the trustworthiness of the data. According to Vanderstoep and Johnston (2009: 179), triangulation is used to establish validity and reliability of data. The researcher read and evaluated

the data related to the theory that was used in this research. Next, the researcher found any additional references to support the data. After that, he consulted the research with the first consultant Dr. Widyastuti Purbani, M.A., and the second consultant Eko Rujito Dwi Atmojo, M.Hum. Then, the researcher discussed the research with his friends; Happy Pramukti and Zidnie Ilma from the English Language and Literature Study Program of the State University of Yogyakarta to get their advice and support in order to create a better analysis of the work. The researcher chose those two students because both understand the theories used by the researcher. After the researcher did all of the steps, the research could be trustworthy.

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CHAPTER IV

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

In this chapter, the researcher presents the discussion of the findings of the study. This chapter consists of four sub chapters. The first sub chapter is the abuses experienced by Tess. The second is the causes of the abuses experienced by Tess. The third is the effects of the abuses experienced by Tess. The fourth is the effects of the abuses on Tess‟ personality development.

A. The Abuses Experienced by Tess

In this autobiography, it is written that Tess suffers from several types of abuses during her childhood up to adulthood. There are several people who get involved in the abuse of Tess; her mother, step-fathers, partners, grandmother, caregiver, teacher, and the punters. These people abuse Tess in different ways. The types of abuses which Tess experienced are psychological abuse, sexual abuse, neglect, and physical abuse.

1. Psychological Abuse

Tess is a child who lives in a place which is open to a world of crime. She lives in a brothel, a house of prostitution. In this house she receives many types of abuses from her mother and step-father, Don. One of the abuses which she receives is psychological abuse. Abusers psychologically abuse others in order to gain control of the victim. In the following quotation, Tess‟ mother tries to control

her by denying the child‟s emotional responsiveness, terrorizing, and isolating her.

There was another idea too, stirring in my mind. A seed of something. This is too much, I said to myself. Too much, even for Mother. She could never have known how bad it was going to be. Then I had a thought that shocked me with its suddenness. Did she know? Did she know exactly and still send me out with him? Was it arranged? No, I couldn‟t believe that she‟d let this happen. But the doubt was there now, and my mind whirled round as fast as the train wheels. (Stevens, 2008: 238). Her mother is being abusive towards Tess by forcing her to visit the place of the punters. Tess has the thought that mother is innocence in this case since her mother continuously sends her out to visit the punters whenever mother receives orders from them. Since her mother sends her regularly, Tess interprets that anything which mother tells her would not be harmful for her. Her mother also soothes her by saying to her that everything is going to be fine. This creates the sense of „trust‟ for Tess. Then, her mother also tells Tess that her mother needs her help, especially in increasing the family‟s income by going to the punters‟ place. In addition, her mother tells Tess that she does not have to worry about the sexual abuse she will receive from the punters. She said to Tess that the punters would not dare to touch Tess‟ private organs since mother puts the fear of God in them. “„Oh, don‟t worry about that,‟ said Mother, waving a hand. „It‟s sorted. I put the fear of God in him. If he tries that again, I‟ll have his guts for garters.” (Stevens, 2008: 145-146)

As Tess thinks about this deeply, she starts to realize that she is being abused psychologically by her mother. Tess realizes that her mother has already known what has happened in the punters‟ house, where she receives the sexual

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abuses. It turns out that her mother is the woman behind the scene. Her mother has already known the sexual abuses Tess receives but still sends her to the punters continuously.

„Don‟t you get it, you little cow? I want you to do this. If you don‟t, God will punish me for being a bad mother. I must be a bad mother if my own child won‟t do what I want.‟(Stevens, 2008: 43).

Tess‟ mother also psychologically abuses Tess by terrorizing her. Terrorizing could be defined as the act of threatening a child (Howe, 2005: 94-96). Her mother orders Tess to be involved in crime by stealing in the grocer‟s, although Tess refuses because she knows that it is wrong and against the law. Then her mother threatens Tess by telling her that her mother would be punished by God if her mother‟s wish is not fulfilled. A similar threat is also received by Tess when she is playing games in her room with her siblings.

As us girls started to cry, Mother spoke. „There‟s one thing you can do to help me,‟ she said. „What, Mum, what? We‟ll do anything.‟ „You can all keep quiet for the next hour. Then God might take pity of me.‟(Stevens, 2008: 41).

In this scene, Tess‟ mother psychologically abuses Tess and her siblings by ordering them to be quiet while being locked in the room. The children are not allowed to make any noises since it could disturb mother‟s party. If the children do not obey her, mother will lie on them by saying that God has sent a punishment to her since she cannot manage her children (Stevens, 2008: 41). Her mother gives the fear to the children by assuring them that God had made her face appear like a monster, and by obeying her is the only solution to cure her since God might take pity of her. This psychological abuse could be considered as a combination between terrorization and isolation. The reason is because in doing the terror, she

she‟d been assigned to work in the jam factory. One day when no one was looking she pulled me to her and kissed me full on the lips. I was shocked, and pushed her away. But that kiss had kindled something, and it wasn‟t just because I‟d had no sex for months. I liked it.

16. Generativity 332 More immediately, there was Angie‟s wedding to think about. I wanted to give her the best wedding ever. It‟d be my pride and pleasure to give her a day she‟d remember for the rest of her life.

Tess wants to give Angie a great wedding that she would remember for the rest of her life. It is different to Tess‟, when she never receives attention and neglected by her mother.

17. Generativity 329-330 When I was shacked up with someone and having a terrible time, my friends all meant well. They‟d shake their heads, saying, „Why do you let it happen, Tess? You‟re always so strong. Why don‟t you stand up for yourself?‟ Which was all very well, seeing as how I prided myself on being loud and confident in public, life and soul, all that sort of thing. But inside, the real Tess was having none of it. I‟d walk over hot coals to protect my daughter, but I didn‟t have whatever it took to protect myself from someone

Tess tries to be protective towards her daughter. Her eagerness in protecting her daughter is due to the neglect and the abuses she receives in her past.

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once they‟d got their hooks into me. . It all comes back to mother. How could she have made such a doormat of me that I couldn‟t resist her even when I was grown up? I realize more and more that sending me out to men was only the most obvious sign of the way she treated me, manipulated me. I was hers to command, like an object, a possession. And while she had a strong right arm and often used it to hit me, the lasting damage was what she said to me, how she used words to persuade me, scare me, give me false reassurance. In short, betray me.

18. Generativity 295 Whatever happened to me, I‟d move heaven and earth to make sure my baby grew up happy and secure, kept save from harm. It‟s the greatest joy of my life that my daughter grew up to be a lovely, caring woman, with a fine, hard-working husband, blessed with beautiful, clever children.

Tess prioritizes her daughter‟s safety than her own. This carefulness is also due to the abuses and the lack of care Tess receives in her childhood.

19. Generativity 294 Then came the highlight of my life. Nothing so important happened before, nothing so important happened after. I

Tess is happy because her daughter is born. In the text, we could see that Tess cares for her daughter and told her how

gave birth to a beautiful, healthy baby girl.

When the midwife put her into my arms I just cradled her, gazing at her. I couldn‟t take it in at first. This lovely little baby, absolutely perfect in every way, was mine, and she needed me. Something moved deep within my heart, and tears came to my eyes. For the first time of my life, tears of Joy. I looked into her clear, bright eyes and made a solemn promise. In my heart I told her everything I would have wanted to hear from my mother.

I love you. I will always love you. I will always be there for you. You will have a life of love.

much she loves her. This feeling is also due to the neglect and abuses she receives from her mother when she was a child.

20. Generativity 331 Seeing Angie with her new baby, a little girl as beautiful as her mother, I thought my heart would burst with happiness. I knew she would love that baby just as much as I loved her. And of course I loved the baby too – being a grandmother was wonderful.

Tess is delighted to see her daughter having a baby, which makes her a grandmother. From the text, we could see that Tess had taken care of Angie well and had guided her until she gives birth to Angie‟s daughter.

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money. But what I don‟t know, I‟ve never known since I had my Angie, is how you could do it.‟

Nothing‟s more important than bringing up a child to be loved and secure. Get it wrong, and the child could well suffer for the rest of its life, as I know to my cost.

child is important. She regrets her childhood life when her mother neglected her and exposed her into a life of vice.

22. Generativity 295-296 When I first saw my precious newborn, the rush of love was immediate, pure and passionate. I didn‟t have to think about it. I knew in my bones that I would look after her, care for her in every way I could, come hell or high water. And I know this is right, it‟s natural, it‟s the way a mother should feel.

Tess shows her affection towards her newborn daughter and she will take care of her since it is natural for a mother who wants her daughter safe. It is ironic that Tess herself did not receive the same affection from her mother.