reconstruct the author from its life, and use the author‟s work as a life record. Third, reading a literary work to find the mirror of personality of the author.
2. Erik Erikson‟s Psychosocial Theory
a. The principle of psychosocial theory
Erik Homburger Erikson was born in Germany in 1902. He was a psychoanalyst whose aim was to extend Freud‟s perception on personality
development. Erikson graduated from the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute before coming to the United States in 1933. He became a citizen of the United States in
1939 and contributed greatly to literature on psychoanalysis, personality theory, educational practice, and social anthropology. Eri
kson‟s post-Freudian theory develops Freud‟s developmental stages into adolescence, adulthood, and old age.
According to Erikson, each of the stages has its influence on personality development.
According to Erikson in Feist and Feist , 2008: 246 “ego is the partially
unconscious organizing agency that synthesizes our present experiences with past self-identities and also with anticipated images of self. He defined the ego as a
person‟s ability to unify experiences and actions in an adaptive manner.” Erikson in Feist and Feist
, 2008: 246 “stated the three interrelated aspects of ego: the body ego, the ego ideal, and ego identity.”
The body ego refers to experiences with our body, a way to see our physical self differently from others. The ego ideal represents the image of us compared to
another ideal ego. The ideal ego is responsible for the satisfaction of our physical
self and ego identity. Ego identity is the images that we have in our social roles. The changes in our body ego, ego ideal and ego identity may occur in any life
stages. Although inborn capacities are important in personality development, ego
is mostly formed by the society. Erikson‟s view that personality is influenced by the social and historical factors is contrast to Freud‟s beliefs that personality is
mostly influenced by the biological factor. According to Erikson, humans have their ego since they were born, but to realize it, the society is needed. One of
Erikson‟s contributions to the personality theory is the extension of Freud‟s development theory up to school age, youth, adulthood, and old age.
Erikson believes that ego develops in each of the life stages according to the epigenetic principle. In epigenetic, the growth of the organs of a baby
develops step by step. Similarly to this principle, ego also has its own stages and develops according to its time and each of the ego develop after the previous step
is done. Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 248 described the epigenetic principle by saying that “anything that grows has a ground plan, and that out of this ground
plan the parts arise, each part having its time of special ascendancy, until all parts have arisen to form a functioning whole”. In addition, “epigenesist means that one
characteristic overlaps one another in space and time” Evans in Feist and Feist,
2008: 248.
b. The stages of psychosocial development
There are eight psychosocial development stages according to Erikson; infancy, early childhood, play age, school age, adolescent, young adulthood,
adulthood and old age. All of these stages follow the epigenetic principle, one stage occurs after another stage has been experienced.
Each of the life stages has its own interaction of opposites called contrary disposition. It is a conflict between the syntonic harmony element and dystonic
conflict element. As an example, in adolescence, people will experience identity versus role confusion. Identity is the syntonic element since it is a positive
element, and role confusion could be considered as the dystonic element since it is the cause of the problem of this stage. Although both elements contradict each
other, both are needed for a person to make himher able to develop in life. Identity could make a person stand firm in life and ease himher on pursuing life
goals, since heshe knows who she is and her objectives to be born in this world. While role confusion is needed because it could make a person think deeply on
hisher identity and the purpose in life. Trial and error in searching their identity is a normal and a positive matter in creating a better personality.
In each stage, the conflict between the dystonic and syntonic elements results in the production of basic strength. As an example, the conflict between
identity and role confusion leads to the emergence of fidelity. This occurs when a person experiences more syntonic element than dystonic element. On the contrary,
too little basic strength will lead to the emergence of core pathology. A person
who does not have fidelity will experience role denial in a form of diffidence and defiance Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 258-259.
Erikson believed that human beings experience eight psychosocial stages in life. These stages also have their own basic strength and core pathology and
influence one another in the development of personality. Here are Erikson‟s
psychosocial development stages.
1 trust vs. mistrust.
This stage occurs in the first year of life. The mother of a child becomes the most important person at this stage because when a child was born to this
world, heshe feel uncertain and insecure of this world. A child also needs a person who could feed hisher needs, so, a mother would be the right person to
fulfill it and make the child comfortable. At this stage, a child learns to either trust or mistrust the outside world. Infants must experience hunger, pain, and
discomfort as well as the good conditions in life. By having both painful and pleasurable experiences, infants will learn to struggle in this world in order to gain
satisfaction. In can be said that both syntonic and dystonic should take part equally in life because it is important in the development of a person. A mother,
who often provides her child‟s needs such as giving foods or changing their diapers when it is wet, could create a sense of trust from the child. On the
contrary, if hisher mother do not provide and could not understand the needs of the infant, heshe would feel uncertain about her mother and soon lose the sense
of trust towards hisher mother. Erikson believes that both trust and mistrust are important in personality development. Erikson
told Richard Evans in Feist and
Feist , 2008: 252 that “when we enter a situation, we must be able to differentiate
how much we can trust and how much we must mistrust, and I use mistrust in the sense of a readiness for danger and an anticipation of discomfort”. The conflict
between trust and mistrust could create a basic strength called hope if the trust an infant receives is greater than mistrust. But, if an infant does not receive enough
hope, he she will experience withdrawal the core pathology at this stage. Withdrawal will cause an infant to be inferior in facing the world.
2 autonomy vs. shame and doubt.
This stage occurs in the age of 2 up to 3 years old. At this stage, a child will experience autonomy versus shame and doubt. Autonomy is the syntonic
element of this stage, while shame and doubt are the dystonic. Similar to the first stage, this stage also needs both autonomy and shame and doubt to be included in
a development. Children who lack of autonomy will found difficulties to develop in the next stages. Autonomy develops from the basic trust of children. Trusting
their surroundings is important in order to create a secure feeling and create self- confidence. From the self-confidence which develops in a child, heshe will
become autonomous. On the contrary, if heshe does not have enough self- confidence, shame and doubt which is a dystonic element will develop. Success in
this stage will lead to the virtue of will, which is the basic strength of early childhood stage. In this stage, children only achieve their basic will which is
imperfect. Their „will‟ would develop through the next stages of life. Those who do not have enough „will‟ might express „compulsion‟.
3 initiative vs. guilt.
This stage occurs in the play age, from 3 up to 5 years old. Erikson 1968 stated that, in addition to identifying with their parents, preschool-age children are
developing locomotion, language skills, curiosity, imagination, and the ability to set goals. At this stage a child started to play role on being other people. Play age
is also the stage in which children are developing a conscience and beginning to attach labels such as right and wrong to their behavior. At this stage children gain
more knowledge and have broader imagination. Due to their develop knowledge and imagination, they started to show curiosity towards the world they live in.
They try to explore the world to fulfill their curiosity. This curiosity will lead to the emergence of initiative. If their initiative is being held back, they will develop
a sense of guilt on their actions or initiative. Too many initiatives could create problems to children. These initiatives could create chaos since they act only
according to their desire without concerning on the norms which the society adhered. Both initiative and guilt should equally felt by children. Too many guilt
could also make the child become inferior and restricted. A form of restriction is inhibition which is the antipathy in this stage. The conflict between initiative and
guilt resulted in a basic strength of purpose. At this age, children starting to have their purpose in their acts, and they creates their own target in their activities in
order to fulfill their purpose.
4 industry vs. inferiority.
This stage occurs at the school age, from 6 up to 12 or 13 years old. At this
stage, the world which children interact is broader; it includes family, peers, teachers, and other adult models. In normal development, children try to read and
write, to hunt and fish, or to learn the skills required by their culture. One of the reasons they did this is because they wanted to get attention and recognition from
their surroundings. According to Erikson in Thomas, 1985: 241, children during the
elementary school years need and enjoy hours of make-believe games and play, but they become dissatisfied with too much of this and want
to do something worthwhile. They want to earn recognition by producing something, to gain the satisfaction of completing work by
perseverance.
At this stage children start to judge themselves whether they are competent or incompetent. If adults give tasks that children have interest in and could
accomplish, and if adult give guidance to children in accomplishing their tasks, children could become industrious. But if children are being disappointed, such as
being labeled as a failure by teachers or adults, they will become inferior. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of competence. Competence is the confidence
of using physical ability and cognitive to solve the problems occur in school age. Competence becomes the basis for Cooperative participation in adult‟s productive
life Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 256. If the industry and inferiority are not balance, children tend to give up easily and spend more time on unproductive
activity called inertia. Inertia is the core pathology of this stage.
5 identity vs. role confusion.
This stage occurs in the adolescence age. A period starting from puberty up to young adulthood 14-18. Erikson gave great attention on his writings on
this stage than at any other stages Thomas, 1985: 242. This stage considered to be important because at this stage children have to search for their identity. If they
do not find their true identity and purpose they would be confused in the next stages about their roles. Children at this stage started to find the roles which are
appropriate for them and practice the roles which they think best for them, while struggling in the search of identity. So, adolescence is considered as the age of
trial and error Feist and Feist, 2008: 256. During this stage, the experiences of the previous stages give benefits to
the development in the age of adolescent. The sense of ego identity,
then, is the accrued confidence that one‟s ability to maintain inner sameness and continuity is matched by the
sameness and continuity of one‟s meaning for others. Thus, self- esteem…grows to be a conviction that one is learning effective steps
toward a tangible future, that one is developing a defined personality within a social reality which one understands Erikson in Thomas,
1985: 242
The dystonic element of this stage is role confusion. Youth at this stage is being confused of their identity and purpose. To overcome this problem,
sometimes they identify themselves to their surroundings that they treated as their idol. In addition, they join some groups or gangsters which they think fit them.
After they identify themselves with their surroundings, they then stereotype themselves in their style of speech, body language, and fashion. Sometimes this
identity confusion could make youth become fanatic in their groups and ideals,
because they think that the ideals or point of view which is different to the one they believe is wrong. Another effect of identity confusion is shown in forms of
diffidence or defiance Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 259.
5 intimacy vs. isolation.
This stage occurs in the young adulthood. This stage occurs from 19-30 years of age. At this stage, young adults experience a psychosocial crisis between
intimacy and isolation. Intimacy is the syntonic element and isolation is the dystonic element of young adulthood stage. Intimacy could be defined as the
ability to fuse one‟s identity with another without worrying to lose its own identity Feist and Feist, 2008: 259. Intimacy could only be achieved after a
person succeeded in forming a stable ego. A stable intimacy could lead to a serious relationship with others, since heshe knows the responsibility or the role
heshe has to fulfill in a true relationship that is by showing affection and commitment to hisher partner. Isolation is the dystonic element of this stage.
According to Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 259 isolation is “the incapacity to
take chances with one‟s identity by sharing true intimacy”. The conflict between intimacy versus isolation emerges the basic strength
called love. It is the sense of care which mature male and female have Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 260. In a relationship, isolation still occurs because an
individual has a right to have hisher own privacy which should be hidden from the partner, and this degree of isolation is required in keeping hisher own identity
from fusing with hisher partner.
The antipathy of love is exclusivity. Although exclusivity is considered as the pathology of this stage, it is needed in a certain degree in order to maintain
one‟s identity from fusing or losing due to a relationshipinteraction with others. Although exclusivity is needed in a certain degree, the reason it is considered as
the pathology of this stage is due to its negative effect that is causing people to be lacking of teamwork and communication which is required in building an intimate
relationship.
6 generativity vs. stagnation.
This stage occurs in adulthood, in the age of 31 up to 60 years old. Generativity versus stagnation occurs at this stage. Erikson defined generativity as
the generation of new beings, new products, and new ideas Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 260. So, in this stage, adults started to show their attention to their
surroundings by guiding the next generation, raising children, creating new products, and creating new ideas. This shows that a person is changing from
becoming a child who previously received something from their surroundings, such as being cared by their parents, to being an adult who gives their contribution
for their surroundings. As stated previously, the stages in Erikson‟s psychosocial stages influence
one another. At this stage, generativity grows due to the previously stages such as young adulthood and adolescent. In young adulthood, a person needs intimacy in
order to gain love which is the basic strength of this stage. Intimacy itself can only
be achieved if someone agrees and able to fuse hisher ego with hisher partner, whereas, in adulthood, fusing ego identity with a broader scope is essential.
The antithesis of generativity is self-absorption and stagnation. Self- absorption and stagnation are interconnected to each other. As an example, adults
who are not willing to show their attention towards their surroundings or who only care about them would be stagnate.
The conflict between generativity versus stagnation would result in the emergence of
„care‟ which is the basic strength of adulthood. Erikson defined „care‟ as a commitment that continuously broadens to take care of the persons,
products, and ideas, but previously heshe has to learn to care for Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 261. The antipathy of care is rejectivity, the pathology of
adulthood. Rejectivity is the unwillingness to care for person or particular groups Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 261.
7 integrity vs. despair.
This stage occurs in the old age, around 60 and above. At this stage, a person will experience integrity versus despair. At this stage, a person starts to
lose hisher productivity, but heshe can still take part in being care and guiding others due to hisher experiences in the past years. Despair which is the dystonic
quality at this age often emerge due to some external factors such as losing partner, losing friends, losing physical strength, etc. Due to this condition, a
person could feel hopeless such as disgusted, depressed, contempt for others,
Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 262. But if a person has a strong ego identity, the syntonic quality of integrity may dominate.
The conflict between integrity and despair resulted in wisdom, which is the basic virtue of this stage. Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 263 defined
wisdom as “informed and detached concern with life itself in the face of death itself”. Although the mental and physical ability have decline, the wisdom which a
person has at this stage could contribute in educating and guiding the next generation. The Antipathy of wisdom is disdain.
Table 1: Erikson ‟s Psychosocial Crisis Theory of Human Development.
No. Age
Psychosocial Crisis Basic
Strength Core
Pathology
1. Infancy
1
st
year Trust vs. Mistrust
Hope Withdrawal
2. Early Childhood
Age 2-3 Autonomy vs.
Shame and Doubt Will
Compulsion
3. Play Age
Age 3-5 Initiative vs. Guilt
Purpose Inhibition
4. School Age
Age 6-13 Industry vs.
Inferiority Competence
Inertia
5. Adolescence
Age 14-18 Identity vs. Role
Confusion Fidelity
Role Repudiation
6. Young Adulthood
Age 19-30 Intimacy vs.
Isolation Love
Exclusivity
7. Adulthood
Age 31-60 Generativity vs.
Stagnation Care
Rejection
8. Old Age
60 above Integrity vs. Despair
Wisdom Disdain
3. Abuse a. Definition of abuse
According to the Community Against Violence, Inc. 2016 Abuse is an action which intimidates harms, manipulate
s a person‟s mind, and results in physical or psychological damage. Abuse may occur anywhere. It may occur in
high-educated or low-educated society, in high economic or low economic classes, in any races and religions, in families or in the neighborhood. Abuse also
could be done by both men and women. Many viewed child sexual abuse as a male crime. However, significant minorities of children are abused by female
Turton, 2008: 1. In the year 2000, more than three-quarters of a million children were
abused and neglected. According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, the victims of abuse may suffer from learning problems, depression, and
stress disorders. Beside psychological problems, physical problems such as wounds may occur due to abuse. Generally, there are four types of abuses; they
are physical, psychological maltreatment, neglect, and sexual abuse Corby, 2006: 86.
b. Types of abuse 1
physical abuse.
Today in the United States, psychologists, social workers, and the judicial system generally define physical child abuse as
“the non-accidental injury of a child inflicted by a parent or caregiver such as a grandparent, foster parent, legal
guardian, babysitter, or nanny ” Olive, 2007: 53-54. Physical abuse may include
striking, hitting, beating, pushing, shoving, shaking, slapping, kicking, pinching, and burning. In addition, inappropriate use of drugs and physical restraints, force-
feeding, and physical punishment of any kind also are examples of physical abuse. The younger the child is, the more helpless the child when suffering from abuse.
2 psychological maltreatment.
Psychological maltreatment or psychological abuse is a continuing acts or behaviors of the abusers in a purpose to be destructive to a person Olive, 2007:
67. It is usually shown in a form of rejection, terrorization, isolation, corruption, etc. Psychological abuse could be done verbally and non-verbally. An example of
verbal abuse is swearing. Although swearing does not leave any physical marks to a person, but mentally it does. Non-verbal abuse includes rejection, isolation,
terrorization, and corruption. Another purpose of psychological abuse is to control a person or to manipulate a person in order for the abused to follow the abuser‟s
wishes. Hart, Brassard, and Karlson in Howe, 2005: 94-6 stated the six major subtypes of psychological maltreatment, they are:
a Spurning: humiliating and causing shame to the child
b Terrorizing: threatening to hurt, abandon, or kill the child to make the child
behave or do what the abusers wants. Sometimes a child might be placed in a scary or dangerous place. Some acts of terrorizing involve violence.
c Isolating: keeping the child away from other peoplegroup such as keeping
away from their friends or not letting them go to school. Children might be kept in room most of the time.
d Exploiting and corrupting: encourages children to become anti-social,
destructive, and lack of moral. e
Denying the child emotional responsiveness: The parents do not want to respond to their children‟s need of love and attention. Whenever their
children need their parents‟ attention and praise, the parents refuse to give it. f
Failing to meet the child‟s medical and health needs: This is an abuse occurs when parents do not want to provide medical need for children when needed.
3 neglect.
According to Olive 2007: 67 neglect is an act of parents being ignorant to children that could cause harm to children. Neglect can be physical not giving
food and clothing, medical not giving medical treatment when needed, educational not giving enough formal nor non-formal education, motor not
giving child toys or puzzles to play in order to develop motor skills, and emotional not giving and showing love to children. Neglect occurs when a
caregiver did not provide the basic needs to a child who isare responsible to. Caregiversparents who could be categorized as neglectful are when they have the
capability of caring a childelder but refuse to do so. “In some cases „neglect slowly and persistently eats away at children‟s spirits until they have little will to
connect with others or explore the world‟” Erickson and Egeland in Howe, 2005: 111.
4 sexual abuse.
Sexual child abuse is an abuse which is done by an adult towards a child which involves sexual activity. The sexual activity can include kissing, touching
the breasts, buttocks, or genitals, and sexual intercourse Olive, 2007: 78. In a sexual abuse, the abuser is the one who wanted to do the sexual activity. On the
other hand, the victim or the child does not have the same interest to do so. This difference in interest could lead the abuser to force the victim to fulfill hisher act.
Later this action will be called rape. Besides being done physically, sexual abuse may also be done mentally such as exposing the genital to the victim, taking a
picture of a person while forced being naked, and speaking of sexual activities.
c. Causes of the abuses
The abuses which happen have several causes. According to Olive 2007 and Corby 2006, there are several causes which leads to the act of abuse such as
parents having stress problems, lack of interrelationship between the parents or caregivers and the child, poverty, the vulnerability of the abused, drugs and
alcohol, parent‟s divorce, the environment of the abusers, gender inequality, and abus
ers‟ past experience.
1
parents having stress problems.
Dubanoski et al in Corby, 2006: 164 stated that high level of stress is one of the causes of physical abuse. Those who lack of stress management control
which may occur due to stress they get from their works may release their frustration towards children. If this frustration occurs continuously, parents or
caregivers may abuse their children. As an example, a caregiver or a mother who works all day long may feel frustrated if her child keeps on asking for studying
assistance during the night since the mother felt tired. As a result, the mother would abuse her child physically by slapping the child. Some believe that
parenting is a tiresome duty. They believe that taking care of their children does not bring any benefits to them. Since they do not have any benefit and felt
unrewarded from raising a child, they may insult their child.
2 lack of interrelationship between the parents or caregivers and the
child.
Lacking of interrelationship between both parents and children could make the child defiant or disobedient Olive, 2007: 54. The more disobedient the child
becomes, the more frustration the parent feel. Again, this anger and frustration leads to abuse. As an example, if a parent views his or her child as someone who
is naughty and lack of manner, heshe may strike the child. The cycle of misbehavior and abuse is called the interactional process Olive, 2007: 54. There
is a connection between child‟s behavior and parent‟s reaction.
3 poverty.
Poverty is one of the causes of abuse and neglect Olive, 2007: 68. Gilhan and his colleagues in Corby, 2006: 131 discovered that there is a
correlation between male unemployment and physical abuse of children in a survey of nearly 7,000 cases in Strathclyde in the early 1990‟s. People who are in
low economic level felt more stress than those in stable financial conditions. The greater the level of stress, the greater the possibility of abuse will occur. The 1996
National Incidence study found that children from poor families were likely to experience abuses than other classes above Sediak and Broadhurst in Corby
2006: 131. Although some lower class family experience neglect, middle and higher class family may also experience neglect, but it is more likely to be
experienced by lower class family. Those in the low economic level sometimes run into alcohol or drug to relief themselves from stress due to poverty. Parents
who suffer from stress due to poverty may have less interest in nurturing their children and may also abuse them.
4 the vulnerability of the abused.
Those with young age are easier in risk of being abuse by parents or caregivers. This happens because children at young ages, commonly three or
younger, are defenseless and weak physically. This makes it easier for adults to abuse them. According to the U.S.Department of Health and Human Services in
the year 2004, “children age three or younger experienced the highest rate of
abuse ” Olive, 2007: 55. In addition, the longer term ill effects, more likely to be
experienced by pre-puberty abuse victims than adolescence victims Russell in Corby, 2006: 205.
5 drugs and alcohol.
Children of alcoholics or drug addicts are often psychologically damaged by their parents‟ abuse and the attention it takes away from them. In
Britain, children who lived with alcoholic parents may suffer from behavioral problems, school problems, emotional disturbances, lower self-esteem, anxiety,
depression, and disrupted routines which are the effects of substance abuse Kroll and Taylor in Corby, 2006: 142.
6 parent‟s divorce.
When a parent has to take care of a child by themselves, heshe might feel more stressful since it would make hisher life more difficult. By taking care of a
child alone could increase hisher burden. This will lead parent to abuse the child psychologically. Factor such as parental divorce can cause parents to direct their
inability to cope with stressors toward the children Olive, 2007: 68.
7 the environment of the abusers.
Adults who live in unhealthy environments are likely not learning to take care a child properly Olive, 2007: 68. Parents or caregivers who neglect their
children tend to be isolated and do not have many friends. They do not have adequate knowledge in caring for their children. According to a study done by
Coohey in Corby, 2006: 144, stated the three variables in assessing the impacts
of isolation, they are number of network contacts, the amount of received support and the parents‟ perception of that support. She found that isolation and neglect
have strong correlation.
8 gender inequality.
According to Olive 2007: 81 majority 95 to 98 percent of people who sexually abuse children are male with victims of both male and female. Another
prove was stated by Finkelhor in Corby, 2006: 127 that 95 percent of girls and 80 percent of boys In the United States are sexually abused by males. So, males
are more likely to perform such abuse. Between 1980 and 1986, 8 out of 411 children were sexually abused by females, according to a report from the Great
Osmond Street Hospital for sick children. It means that male dominates in the act of sexual abuse Ben Tovim et al. in Corby, 2006:127. The sexual abuses
launched by men over women are the media for gaining control over women Dominelli in Corby, 2006: 175. Sexual abuse is also seen as an example of
institutionalized male power over females Corby, 2006: 175.
9 abusers‟ past experience.
As a result of being abused in hisher lives, the ex-victims of abuse wanted to satisfy or express their lust of power and control which they could not fulfill
when being abused. These abusers look for a medium of fulfilling their lust that is by abusing children. An example is in the case of sexual abuse, according to
Groth and Burgess in Corby, 2006: 135 “that 32 per cent of a group of 106 child
molesters reported some form of sexual trauma in childhood”. Lewis et al in Corby, 2006: 194 also found that adults who offend and abuse children had been
violently abused themselves.
d. Effects of the abuses
The abuses which occurs and experienced by the victims could leads to several effects. According to Olive 2007, Corby 2006, Hunter 2014, Gold,
Sullivan, and Lewis in the Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2013 Stated that there are several effects of the abuses such as physical wound in certain area of
the body, having difficulties in coping with anger, difficulties in studying, difficulties in socializing, poor physical health, juvenile delinquency and adult
crime, consuming illegal drugs and alcoholic, and genophobia.
1 physical wound in certain area of the body.
Bruises might be the result of physical abuse or due to other conditions. Bruises are common in active, healthy children. However, bruises are also a
common finding in abused children Thompson in AIFS, 2014. Bruises in certain area of the body such as bruises with particular imprints of belt mark, iron mark,
bite mark, or broom mark certainly are the result of physical abuse. Broken bones also are a result of physical abuse Olive, 2007: 55. While bruises around the
genital area, bruised around the breast for girls, transmitted disease, and anal bleeding are due to sexual abuse. In their research, Jaudes and Morris in Corby,
2006: 204 found that from 138 sexually abused children based on the data in the
hospital between 1979 and 1987, found that one-third of the children had sexually transmitted disease.
2 having difficulties in coping with anger
. The victims of abuse sometimes have difficulties in coping with anger.
Their anger are sometimes buried deep inside their hearts and not expressed freely since the victims are afraid to do so in front of the abusers. As a consequence,
abused victims may lose control of their anger. “A physically abused child who
becomes angry over something may show physical aggression toward other children, animals, or adults” Olive, 2007: 57.
3 difficulties in studying.
Some victims of abuse find difficulties in studying. Abuse and neglect in the early life could affect the infants‟ development in the areas of speech and
language Wolfe in AIFS, 2014. When the victims of abuse enter preschool or kindergarten, learning problems show up as poor performance in school Olive,
2007: 57. Research also shows that maltreated children have lower educational achievement than other children Gilbert et al in AIFS, 2014.
4 difficulties in socializing.
The victims of abuse may have difficulties in socializing and trusting other people Olive, 2007: 58. Since they often suffer from abuse, they began not to
trust other people easily. Abused people tend not to feel safe when they are
socializing with others; they feel worried by their surroundings. The victims of abuse also feel being unwanted and unloved. They began to think that they are not
worthy living in this world and would be useless for other people. This belief makes them avoid social interactions. Difficulties in socializing also may be due
to the result of the treatments and the lack of attention given by the parents.
5 poor physical health.
Poor physical health is due to the lack of attention given by the parents or caregivers. Neglected children are not being taught by their parents how to take
care of their health. As a result they suffer from various diseases. Children who are neglected may suffer from diabetes, malnutrition and lung problems Widom,
et al., in AIFS, 2014.
6 juvenile delinquency and adult crime.
Adult who suffer from abuse in hisher childhood may grow up into criminals Olive, 2007: 69. Studies found the correlation between child abuse and
crime in the previous stages. Children who suffer from abuse are nine times more likely to involve in crime Gold, Sullivan, Lewis in the Child Welfare
Information Gateway, 2013. “Prospective studies showed that about 20 per cent
of abused children went on to commit crimes as juveniles Corby. 2006: 193-194.
7 consuming illegal drugs and alcoholic.
The victims of abuse may turn into an alcoholic person or consuming illegal drugs Olive, 2007: 69. These are done in order to escape from the bitter
world they live in, since alcohol and drugs could make them lose their consciousness and feel more relax in a certain way. Cohen et al in Corby, 2006:
193 found that 178 US and Australian hospital patients of drug and alcohol addicts found that 84 per cent of the patients were the victims of physical abuse
and neglect in their childhood.
8 genophobia.
Victims of sexual abuse may have phobias due to sex Olive, 2007: 80. Genophobia is a term used for the trauma of sex taken from
http:www.allaboutcounseling.comlibrarygenophobia-coitophobia. Those who suffer from genophobia may be people who suffer from sexual abuse in hisher
previous age. Those who suffer from genophobia might be panic or disgust when they are open to sexual activities. Briere et al in Corby, 2006: 201 found that
women who are sexually abused in childhood are twice more likely to experience fear, anxiety, and nightmares.
B. Previous Research Findings
There are three works of thesis in the English Language and Literature Study Program
of the State University of Yogyakarta which used Erikson‟s psychosocial theory. The first thesis is Katrin Rahma Pandansari‟s thesis entitled
The Cause and Effect in Melinda’s Traumatic Experiences: A Psychosocial Analysis in Anderson’s Speak which was written in 2014. In this research, she
focuses on how sexual harassment affects Melinda‟s psychological condition and how is the impact toward her psychosocial development.
The second thesis is Eka Setiawati‟s thesis entitled The Psychological Effects of Wor
ld War II on Ira Hayes and John Bradley’s Characters in James Bradley’s Flags of Our Fathers. This thesis was written in 2011. It focuses on
identifying the psychological changes of the characters in Flags of Our Fathers as the effect of traumatic experience in war.
The third thesis is Irsha Karisha Puspitasari‟s thesis entitled Esperanza’s Personality Development as Reflected in Sandra Cisneros’ the House on Mango
Street. This thesis was written in 2012. This research focuses on identifying the personality development of Esperanza and the factors that affects her personality.
The theory used by the previous researchers is similar to this research; they
used Erik Erikson‟s psychosocial theory. Although the theory which is used is similar, the focuses of the other three previous researches are different. The first
research focuses on the effects of sexual harassment towards a character‟s psychological condition and psychosocial development. Then, the second research
focuses on identifying psychological changes due to traumatic experience in war. The third research focuses on identifying personality development of a character
and the factors that affect the personality. Meanwhile, this research focuses on finding the types, the causes, the effects of the abuses experienced by Tess and the
effects of the abuses on her personality development in Tess Stevens‟ Sold.
C. Conceptual Framework
Tess Stevens Sold is an autobiography which tells the lives of Tess being abused by her mother. Many types of abuse are experienced by Tess throughout
her lives mostly in her childhood. Besides being abused by her mother, Tess is also abused by her stepfather, caregiver, school teacher, friends, and partners, and
the punters. This research analyzes the abuses, the causes which Tess experienced, and its effects in general and on her personality development.
This research uses the mimetic approach because the characters or the setting in a literary work is an imitation of the reality. Psychology of literature is
used because psychology and literature contains a similarity that it focuses on analyzing human being. Since both psychology and literature focus on analyzing
humans, and literature reflects the reality, the mimetic approach is appropriate to be used in this research.
The re searcher used Erikson‟s psychosocial development theory in
conducting this research. According to this theory human undergoes eight psychosocial stages. The stages are infancy, early childhood, play age, school age,
adolescence, young adulthood, adulthood, and old age. In each of these stages there are syntonic and dystonic qualities.
Figure 1 : Conceptual Framework
Mimetic
Literature
Psychology of Literature
Erikson‟s Psychosocial Theory of the Development
Stages: 1. Trust vs. Mistrust
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
3. Initiative vs. Guilt 4. Industry vs. Inferiority
5. Identity vs. Role
Confusion 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation
8. Integrity vs. Despair Research Question 4.
What are the effects of the abuses on
Tess‟ personality
development? Abuse Theories by
Corby, Howe, Olive, Turton, Harris, Hunter,
Community Against Violence, Inc., Child
Welfare Information Gateway, and
allaboutcounseling.com.
Research Question 3. What are the effects of
the abuses experienced by Tess?
Research Question 1. What abuses are
experienced by Tess?
Research Question 2. What are the causes
of the abuses experienced by Tess?
Tess Stevens‟ Sold
Human
Psychology Society
40
CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHOD
A. Research Design
This research has several purposes; to find the abuses experienced by Tess, to find the causes of the abuses experienced by Tess, to find the effects of the
abuses experienced by Tess, and to find the effects of the abuses on Tess‟ personality development in the autobiography entitled Sold. The researcher uses
the qualitative research method in conducting this research. According to Hayllar and Veal 1996: 30 “Qualitative research methods are concerned with collecting
information which doesn‟t involve numbers.” “The aim of qualitative research is to understand a particular social situation, event, role, group, or interaction
” L Kocke. Spirduso, Silverman in Creswell: 226.
In this study, the researcher used content-analysis in analyzing the autobiography. According to Hayllar and Veal 1996: 36 content analysis is a
method that uses three types of data: written, visual, and spoken material. The written data include historical documents, government policies, speeches,
magazines, newspaper, etc. Visual data include television, documentaries, and films.
B. The Sources of the Data
The data of this research are words, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs which are taken from an autobiography entitled Sold, which have correlation with
the objectives of this research. Sold was written by Tess Stevens in 2008. It consists of 24 chapters and 336 pages. It was published in Great Britain by
Hodder Stoughton.
C. Instruments of the Research
The main instrument of the research is the researcher himself. According to Lincoln and Guba in Vanderstoep and Johnston, 2009: 188-189 the best
instrument for qualitative naturalistic inquiry is humans because they are responsive and interpretative towards the research. Meanwhile, non-human
instruments are not. The researcher also collected, analyzed, and reported the result of the research based on his interpretation.
The researcher used table sheets as the secondary instrument to ease the work during the process of analysis. The table sheets contain the data which were
noted and recorded from Tess Stevens‟ Sold. The table sheets are presented below.
Table 2: The Types of Abuse Experienced by Tess
No. Category
Page Quotation Meaning
1
Table 3: The Causes of the Abuses Experienced by Tess
No. Category
Page Quotation Meaning
1
Table 4: The Effects of the Abuses Experienced by Tess
Table 5: The Effects of the Abuses on Tess ‟ Personality Development
D. The Technique of the Data Collection
The researcher used several steps in collecting the data. The steps were reading, re-reading, note taking, and categorizing the data. First, the researcher
read the autobiography entitled Sold written by Tess Stevens to get understanding of the content of the book. Second, the researcher re-read the autobiography
several times to get better understanding. Third, the researcher took notes of several important information or data which were related to the topic of the
research. Fourth, the information or data which has been noted were categorized into four categories. To answer the first question, the researcher found the abuses
No. Category
Page Quotation
Meaning
1
No. Category
Page Quotation Meaning
1
