of isolation, they are number of network contacts, the amount of received support and the parents‟ perception of that support. She found that isolation and neglect
have strong correlation.
8 gender inequality.
According to Olive 2007: 81 majority 95 to 98 percent of people who sexually abuse children are male with victims of both male and female. Another
prove was stated by Finkelhor in Corby, 2006: 127 that 95 percent of girls and 80 percent of boys In the United States are sexually abused by males. So, males
are more likely to perform such abuse. Between 1980 and 1986, 8 out of 411 children were sexually abused by females, according to a report from the Great
Osmond Street Hospital for sick children. It means that male dominates in the act of sexual abuse Ben Tovim et al. in Corby, 2006:127. The sexual abuses
launched by men over women are the media for gaining control over women Dominelli in Corby, 2006: 175. Sexual abuse is also seen as an example of
institutionalized male power over females Corby, 2006: 175.
9 abusers‟ past experience.
As a result of being abused in hisher lives, the ex-victims of abuse wanted to satisfy or express their lust of power and control which they could not fulfill
when being abused. These abusers look for a medium of fulfilling their lust that is by abusing children. An example is in the case of sexual abuse, according to
Groth and Burgess in Corby, 2006: 135 “that 32 per cent of a group of 106 child
molesters reported some form of sexual trauma in childhood”. Lewis et al in Corby, 2006: 194 also found that adults who offend and abuse children had been
violently abused themselves.
d. Effects of the abuses
The abuses which occurs and experienced by the victims could leads to several effects. According to Olive 2007, Corby 2006, Hunter 2014, Gold,
Sullivan, and Lewis in the Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2013 Stated that there are several effects of the abuses such as physical wound in certain area of
the body, having difficulties in coping with anger, difficulties in studying, difficulties in socializing, poor physical health, juvenile delinquency and adult
crime, consuming illegal drugs and alcoholic, and genophobia.
1 physical wound in certain area of the body.
Bruises might be the result of physical abuse or due to other conditions. Bruises are common in active, healthy children. However, bruises are also a
common finding in abused children Thompson in AIFS, 2014. Bruises in certain area of the body such as bruises with particular imprints of belt mark, iron mark,
bite mark, or broom mark certainly are the result of physical abuse. Broken bones also are a result of physical abuse Olive, 2007: 55. While bruises around the
genital area, bruised around the breast for girls, transmitted disease, and anal bleeding are due to sexual abuse. In their research, Jaudes and Morris in Corby,
2006: 204 found that from 138 sexually abused children based on the data in the
hospital between 1979 and 1987, found that one-third of the children had sexually transmitted disease.
2 having difficulties in coping with anger
. The victims of abuse sometimes have difficulties in coping with anger.
Their anger are sometimes buried deep inside their hearts and not expressed freely since the victims are afraid to do so in front of the abusers. As a consequence,
abused victims may lose control of their anger. “A physically abused child who
becomes angry over something may show physical aggression toward other children, animals, or adults” Olive, 2007: 57.
3 difficulties in studying.
Some victims of abuse find difficulties in studying. Abuse and neglect in the early life could affect the infants‟ development in the areas of speech and
language Wolfe in AIFS, 2014. When the victims of abuse enter preschool or kindergarten, learning problems show up as poor performance in school Olive,
2007: 57. Research also shows that maltreated children have lower educational achievement than other children Gilbert et al in AIFS, 2014.
4 difficulties in socializing.
The victims of abuse may have difficulties in socializing and trusting other people Olive, 2007: 58. Since they often suffer from abuse, they began not to
trust other people easily. Abused people tend not to feel safe when they are
socializing with others; they feel worried by their surroundings. The victims of abuse also feel being unwanted and unloved. They began to think that they are not
worthy living in this world and would be useless for other people. This belief makes them avoid social interactions. Difficulties in socializing also may be due
to the result of the treatments and the lack of attention given by the parents.
5 poor physical health.
Poor physical health is due to the lack of attention given by the parents or caregivers. Neglected children are not being taught by their parents how to take
care of their health. As a result they suffer from various diseases. Children who are neglected may suffer from diabetes, malnutrition and lung problems Widom,
et al., in AIFS, 2014.
6 juvenile delinquency and adult crime.
Adult who suffer from abuse in hisher childhood may grow up into criminals Olive, 2007: 69. Studies found the correlation between child abuse and
crime in the previous stages. Children who suffer from abuse are nine times more likely to involve in crime Gold, Sullivan, Lewis in the Child Welfare
Information Gateway, 2013. “Prospective studies showed that about 20 per cent
of abused children went on to commit crimes as juveniles Corby. 2006: 193-194.
7 consuming illegal drugs and alcoholic.
The victims of abuse may turn into an alcoholic person or consuming illegal drugs Olive, 2007: 69. These are done in order to escape from the bitter
world they live in, since alcohol and drugs could make them lose their consciousness and feel more relax in a certain way. Cohen et al in Corby, 2006:
193 found that 178 US and Australian hospital patients of drug and alcohol addicts found that 84 per cent of the patients were the victims of physical abuse
and neglect in their childhood.
8 genophobia.
Victims of sexual abuse may have phobias due to sex Olive, 2007: 80. Genophobia is a term used for the trauma of sex taken from
http:www.allaboutcounseling.comlibrarygenophobia-coitophobia. Those who suffer from genophobia may be people who suffer from sexual abuse in hisher
previous age. Those who suffer from genophobia might be panic or disgust when they are open to sexual activities. Briere et al in Corby, 2006: 201 found that
women who are sexually abused in childhood are twice more likely to experience fear, anxiety, and nightmares.
B. Previous Research Findings
There are three works of thesis in the English Language and Literature Study Program
of the State University of Yogyakarta which used Erikson‟s psychosocial theory. The first thesis is Katrin Rahma Pandansari‟s thesis entitled
The Cause and Effect in Melinda’s Traumatic Experiences: A Psychosocial Analysis in Anderson’s Speak which was written in 2014. In this research, she
focuses on how sexual harassment affects Melinda‟s psychological condition and how is the impact toward her psychosocial development.
The second thesis is Eka Setiawati‟s thesis entitled The Psychological Effects of Wor
ld War II on Ira Hayes and John Bradley’s Characters in James Bradley’s Flags of Our Fathers. This thesis was written in 2011. It focuses on
identifying the psychological changes of the characters in Flags of Our Fathers as the effect of traumatic experience in war.
The third thesis is Irsha Karisha Puspitasari‟s thesis entitled Esperanza’s Personality Development as Reflected in Sandra Cisneros’ the House on Mango
Street. This thesis was written in 2012. This research focuses on identifying the personality development of Esperanza and the factors that affects her personality.
The theory used by the previous researchers is similar to this research; they
used Erik Erikson‟s psychosocial theory. Although the theory which is used is similar, the focuses of the other three previous researches are different. The first
research focuses on the effects of sexual harassment towards a character‟s psychological condition and psychosocial development. Then, the second research
focuses on identifying psychological changes due to traumatic experience in war. The third research focuses on identifying personality development of a character
and the factors that affect the personality. Meanwhile, this research focuses on finding the types, the causes, the effects of the abuses experienced by Tess and the
effects of the abuses on her personality development in Tess Stevens‟ Sold.
