The stages of psychosocial development

4 industry vs. inferiority. This stage occurs at the school age, from 6 up to 12 or 13 years old. At this stage, the world which children interact is broader; it includes family, peers, teachers, and other adult models. In normal development, children try to read and write, to hunt and fish, or to learn the skills required by their culture. One of the reasons they did this is because they wanted to get attention and recognition from their surroundings. According to Erikson in Thomas, 1985: 241, children during the elementary school years need and enjoy hours of make-believe games and play, but they become dissatisfied with too much of this and want to do something worthwhile. They want to earn recognition by producing something, to gain the satisfaction of completing work by perseverance. At this stage children start to judge themselves whether they are competent or incompetent. If adults give tasks that children have interest in and could accomplish, and if adult give guidance to children in accomplishing their tasks, children could become industrious. But if children are being disappointed, such as being labeled as a failure by teachers or adults, they will become inferior. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of competence. Competence is the confidence of using physical ability and cognitive to solve the problems occur in school age. Competence becomes the basis for Cooperative participation in adult‟s productive life Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 256. If the industry and inferiority are not balance, children tend to give up easily and spend more time on unproductive activity called inertia. Inertia is the core pathology of this stage. 5 identity vs. role confusion. This stage occurs in the adolescence age. A period starting from puberty up to young adulthood 14-18. Erikson gave great attention on his writings on this stage than at any other stages Thomas, 1985: 242. This stage considered to be important because at this stage children have to search for their identity. If they do not find their true identity and purpose they would be confused in the next stages about their roles. Children at this stage started to find the roles which are appropriate for them and practice the roles which they think best for them, while struggling in the search of identity. So, adolescence is considered as the age of trial and error Feist and Feist, 2008: 256. During this stage, the experiences of the previous stages give benefits to the development in the age of adolescent. The sense of ego identity, then, is the accrued confidence that one‟s ability to maintain inner sameness and continuity is matched by the sameness and continuity of one‟s meaning for others. Thus, self- esteem…grows to be a conviction that one is learning effective steps toward a tangible future, that one is developing a defined personality within a social reality which one understands Erikson in Thomas, 1985: 242 The dystonic element of this stage is role confusion. Youth at this stage is being confused of their identity and purpose. To overcome this problem, sometimes they identify themselves to their surroundings that they treated as their idol. In addition, they join some groups or gangsters which they think fit them. After they identify themselves with their surroundings, they then stereotype themselves in their style of speech, body language, and fashion. Sometimes this identity confusion could make youth become fanatic in their groups and ideals, because they think that the ideals or point of view which is different to the one they believe is wrong. Another effect of identity confusion is shown in forms of diffidence or defiance Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 259. 5 intimacy vs. isolation. This stage occurs in the young adulthood. This stage occurs from 19-30 years of age. At this stage, young adults experience a psychosocial crisis between intimacy and isolation. Intimacy is the syntonic element and isolation is the dystonic element of young adulthood stage. Intimacy could be defined as the ability to fuse one‟s identity with another without worrying to lose its own identity Feist and Feist, 2008: 259. Intimacy could only be achieved after a person succeeded in forming a stable ego. A stable intimacy could lead to a serious relationship with others, since heshe knows the responsibility or the role heshe has to fulfill in a true relationship that is by showing affection and commitment to hisher partner. Isolation is the dystonic element of this stage. According to Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 259 isolation is “the incapacity to take chances with one‟s identity by sharing true intimacy”. The conflict between intimacy versus isolation emerges the basic strength called love. It is the sense of care which mature male and female have Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 260. In a relationship, isolation still occurs because an individual has a right to have hisher own privacy which should be hidden from the partner, and this degree of isolation is required in keeping hisher own identity from fusing with hisher partner. The antipathy of love is exclusivity. Although exclusivity is considered as the pathology of this stage, it is needed in a certain degree in order to maintain one‟s identity from fusing or losing due to a relationshipinteraction with others. Although exclusivity is needed in a certain degree, the reason it is considered as the pathology of this stage is due to its negative effect that is causing people to be lacking of teamwork and communication which is required in building an intimate relationship. 6 generativity vs. stagnation. This stage occurs in adulthood, in the age of 31 up to 60 years old. Generativity versus stagnation occurs at this stage. Erikson defined generativity as the generation of new beings, new products, and new ideas Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 260. So, in this stage, adults started to show their attention to their surroundings by guiding the next generation, raising children, creating new products, and creating new ideas. This shows that a person is changing from becoming a child who previously received something from their surroundings, such as being cared by their parents, to being an adult who gives their contribution for their surroundings. As stated previously, the stages in Erikson‟s psychosocial stages influence one another. At this stage, generativity grows due to the previously stages such as young adulthood and adolescent. In young adulthood, a person needs intimacy in order to gain love which is the basic strength of this stage. Intimacy itself can only be achieved if someone agrees and able to fuse hisher ego with hisher partner, whereas, in adulthood, fusing ego identity with a broader scope is essential. The antithesis of generativity is self-absorption and stagnation. Self- absorption and stagnation are interconnected to each other. As an example, adults who are not willing to show their attention towards their surroundings or who only care about them would be stagnate. The conflict between generativity versus stagnation would result in the emergence of „care‟ which is the basic strength of adulthood. Erikson defined „care‟ as a commitment that continuously broadens to take care of the persons, products, and ideas, but previously heshe has to learn to care for Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 261. The antipathy of care is rejectivity, the pathology of adulthood. Rejectivity is the unwillingness to care for person or particular groups Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 261. 7 integrity vs. despair. This stage occurs in the old age, around 60 and above. At this stage, a person will experience integrity versus despair. At this stage, a person starts to lose hisher productivity, but heshe can still take part in being care and guiding others due to hisher experiences in the past years. Despair which is the dystonic quality at this age often emerge due to some external factors such as losing partner, losing friends, losing physical strength, etc. Due to this condition, a person could feel hopeless such as disgusted, depressed, contempt for others, Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 262. But if a person has a strong ego identity, the syntonic quality of integrity may dominate. The conflict between integrity and despair resulted in wisdom, which is the basic virtue of this stage. Erikson in Feist and Feist, 2008: 263 defined wisdom as “informed and detached concern with life itself in the face of death itself”. Although the mental and physical ability have decline, the wisdom which a person has at this stage could contribute in educating and guiding the next generation. The Antipathy of wisdom is disdain. Table 1: Erikson ‟s Psychosocial Crisis Theory of Human Development. No. Age Psychosocial Crisis Basic Strength Core Pathology 1. Infancy 1 st year Trust vs. Mistrust Hope Withdrawal 2. Early Childhood Age 2-3 Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Will Compulsion 3. Play Age Age 3-5 Initiative vs. Guilt Purpose Inhibition 4. School Age Age 6-13 Industry vs. Inferiority Competence Inertia 5. Adolescence Age 14-18 Identity vs. Role Confusion Fidelity Role Repudiation 6. Young Adulthood Age 19-30 Intimacy vs. Isolation Love Exclusivity 7. Adulthood Age 31-60 Generativity vs. Stagnation Care Rejection 8. Old Age 60 above Integrity vs. Despair Wisdom Disdain

3. Abuse a. Definition of abuse

According to the Community Against Violence, Inc. 2016 Abuse is an action which intimidates harms, manipulate s a person‟s mind, and results in physical or psychological damage. Abuse may occur anywhere. It may occur in high-educated or low-educated society, in high economic or low economic classes, in any races and religions, in families or in the neighborhood. Abuse also could be done by both men and women. Many viewed child sexual abuse as a male crime. However, significant minorities of children are abused by female Turton, 2008: 1. In the year 2000, more than three-quarters of a million children were abused and neglected. According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, the victims of abuse may suffer from learning problems, depression, and stress disorders. Beside psychological problems, physical problems such as wounds may occur due to abuse. Generally, there are four types of abuses; they are physical, psychological maltreatment, neglect, and sexual abuse Corby, 2006: 86.

b. Types of abuse 1

physical abuse. Today in the United States, psychologists, social workers, and the judicial system generally define physical child abuse as “the non-accidental injury of a child inflicted by a parent or caregiver such as a grandparent, foster parent, legal guardian, babysitter, or nanny ” Olive, 2007: 53-54. Physical abuse may include striking, hitting, beating, pushing, shoving, shaking, slapping, kicking, pinching, and burning. In addition, inappropriate use of drugs and physical restraints, force- feeding, and physical punishment of any kind also are examples of physical abuse. The younger the child is, the more helpless the child when suffering from abuse. 2 psychological maltreatment. Psychological maltreatment or psychological abuse is a continuing acts or behaviors of the abusers in a purpose to be destructive to a person Olive, 2007: 67. It is usually shown in a form of rejection, terrorization, isolation, corruption, etc. Psychological abuse could be done verbally and non-verbally. An example of verbal abuse is swearing. Although swearing does not leave any physical marks to a person, but mentally it does. Non-verbal abuse includes rejection, isolation, terrorization, and corruption. Another purpose of psychological abuse is to control a person or to manipulate a person in order for the abused to follow the abuser‟s wishes. Hart, Brassard, and Karlson in Howe, 2005: 94-6 stated the six major subtypes of psychological maltreatment, they are: a Spurning: humiliating and causing shame to the child b Terrorizing: threatening to hurt, abandon, or kill the child to make the child behave or do what the abusers wants. Sometimes a child might be placed in a scary or dangerous place. Some acts of terrorizing involve violence. c Isolating: keeping the child away from other peoplegroup such as keeping away from their friends or not letting them go to school. Children might be kept in room most of the time. d Exploiting and corrupting: encourages children to become anti-social, destructive, and lack of moral. e Denying the child emotional responsiveness: The parents do not want to respond to their children‟s need of love and attention. Whenever their children need their parents‟ attention and praise, the parents refuse to give it. f Failing to meet the child‟s medical and health needs: This is an abuse occurs when parents do not want to provide medical need for children when needed. 3 neglect. According to Olive 2007: 67 neglect is an act of parents being ignorant to children that could cause harm to children. Neglect can be physical not giving food and clothing, medical not giving medical treatment when needed, educational not giving enough formal nor non-formal education, motor not giving child toys or puzzles to play in order to develop motor skills, and emotional not giving and showing love to children. Neglect occurs when a caregiver did not provide the basic needs to a child who isare responsible to. Caregiversparents who could be categorized as neglectful are when they have the capability of caring a childelder but refuse to do so. “In some cases „neglect slowly and persistently eats away at children‟s spirits until they have little will to connect with others or explore the world‟” Erickson and Egeland in Howe, 2005: 111. 4 sexual abuse. Sexual child abuse is an abuse which is done by an adult towards a child which involves sexual activity. The sexual activity can include kissing, touching the breasts, buttocks, or genitals, and sexual intercourse Olive, 2007: 78. In a sexual abuse, the abuser is the one who wanted to do the sexual activity. On the other hand, the victim or the child does not have the same interest to do so. This difference in interest could lead the abuser to force the victim to fulfill hisher act. Later this action will be called rape. Besides being done physically, sexual abuse may also be done mentally such as exposing the genital to the victim, taking a picture of a person while forced being naked, and speaking of sexual activities.

c. Causes of the abuses

The abuses which happen have several causes. According to Olive 2007 and Corby 2006, there are several causes which leads to the act of abuse such as parents having stress problems, lack of interrelationship between the parents or caregivers and the child, poverty, the vulnerability of the abused, drugs and alcohol, parent‟s divorce, the environment of the abusers, gender inequality, and abus ers‟ past experience. 1 parents having stress problems. Dubanoski et al in Corby, 2006: 164 stated that high level of stress is one of the causes of physical abuse. Those who lack of stress management control which may occur due to stress they get from their works may release their frustration towards children. If this frustration occurs continuously, parents or caregivers may abuse their children. As an example, a caregiver or a mother who works all day long may feel frustrated if her child keeps on asking for studying assistance during the night since the mother felt tired. As a result, the mother would abuse her child physically by slapping the child. Some believe that parenting is a tiresome duty. They believe that taking care of their children does not bring any benefits to them. Since they do not have any benefit and felt unrewarded from raising a child, they may insult their child. 2 lack of interrelationship between the parents or caregivers and the child. Lacking of interrelationship between both parents and children could make the child defiant or disobedient Olive, 2007: 54. The more disobedient the child becomes, the more frustration the parent feel. Again, this anger and frustration leads to abuse. As an example, if a parent views his or her child as someone who is naughty and lack of manner, heshe may strike the child. The cycle of misbehavior and abuse is called the interactional process Olive, 2007: 54. There is a connection between child‟s behavior and parent‟s reaction.