15
and Howard Gardner. Those theories help the researcher to understand how children learn, especially regarding the learning of a foreign language.
a. Jean Piaget: The Theory of the Cognitive
Piaget’s theory deals with children themselves. According to Piaget, children are active learners. Piaget explains that they learn everything from their
surroundings as cited in Suyanto, 2007, p. 6. Then, they develop what they had and interact with what they found. In the process of interaction, they do an action
in order to be able to solve a problem. Suyanto 2007 emphasizes that it is called the process of learning p. 6.
b. Lev Vygotsky: The Theory of the Socio-Cultural
Suyanto 2007 notes that the theory which is proposed byVygotsky focuses on social factors p. 7. Therefore, it calls socio-cultural theory. Suyanto
2007c adds that this theory shows social relationships which can help young learners to use language faster. Additionally, Suyanto 2007c emphasizes the
development of the language learning process occurs in a social context, for example adults should communicate with children so that they use that language
in the community.
c. Jerome Bruner: The Theory of Discovery Learning and Scaffolding
According to Bruner, in the process of teaching a language to young learners, the most important thing is to involve them actively in the process of
teaching and learning as cited in Suyanto, 2007, p.11. Suyanto 2007b
16
emphasizes that this process is important because according to Bruner ‘true learning comes through personal discovery’.
Additionally, Suyanto 2007c describes that talking to young learners while they are doing some activities in class is an effective verbal help for them.
Suyanto 2007c calls it scaffolding which is used as the base of the teaching and learning process. Also, Suyanto 2007d adds that it is done routinely.
d. Howard Gardner: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences
Gardner 1983 notes a child with a high ‘intelligence’ has the ability to solve problems, to find the answers to specific questions, and to learn new
material quickly and efficiently p. 14. From this point of view, intelligence is a general ability that is found in varying degrees in all individuals. He claims that
intelligence is the key to success in solving problems. Regarding a traditional perspective of intelligence, Gardner 1983 states:
In a traditional view, intelligence is defined operationally as the ability to answer items on tests of intelligence. The inference from the test
scores to some underlying ability is supported by statistical techniques that compares responses of subjects at different ages; the apparent
correlation of these test scores across ages and across different tests corroborates the notion that the general faculty of intelligence, g, does
not change much with age or with training or experience. It is an inborn attribute or faculty of individual p. 16
Richards and Rodgers 2001 note that traditional IQ tests measure only logic and language, yet the brain has other equally important types of intelligence.
Moreover, Amstrong 2000 suggests that intelligence is more about the capacity
17
of solving-problems and fashioning products in a context-rich and naturalistic setting. Therefore, Richards and Rogers 2001 say that Gardner proposed a view
of natural human talents that is labeled the ‘Multiple Intelligences Model’. It is one of learning style models that have been proposed in general education and
have subsequently been applied in language education. Gardner claims that his view of intelligences is culture-free and avoids the conceptual narrowness
associated with traditional models of intelligence. Armstrong 2000 states that the concept of intelligence began to lose its
mystique and became a functional concept that can be seen at work in people’s lives in a variety of ways p. 1. Gardner divides their capabilities into eight
comprehensive categories or ‘intelligences’ as follows:
1 Logical-Mathematical Intelligence
Logical-mathematical intelligence is to use numbers effectively and to reason well. It can be looked when children are able to memorize abstract designs and
children are able to give logical reason in both ways inductively and deductively.
2 Visual-Spatial Intelligence
Visual-spatial intelligence is to perceive the visual-spatial world accurately and to perform transformations on those perceptions.
The example of this intelligences is when children are easy to understand pictures and illustration than
text.
18
3 Linguistic Intelligence
Linguistic intelligence is to use words effectively, whether orally or in writing. The example of this intelligence is when children are able to write better,
and it is easy for them to memorize names, places, and important dates.
4 Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence is to use one’s whole body to express ideas and feelings as well as the capability to use one’s hands to produce or transform
things. The examples of this intelligence are when children are good in making artwork and children have good achievements in sports.
5 Naturalist Intelligence
Naturalist intelligence is to recognize and classify the numerous species - the flora and fauna - of an individual’s environment. The examples of this
intelligences are children love plants and animals and children love to observe and note natural phenomena.
6 Musical Intelligence
Musical intelligence is to perceive, discriminate, transform, and express musical forms. It can be looked when children love to play music instruments, and
it is easy for them to follow music rhythm.
7 Interpersonal Intelligence
Interpersonal intelligence is to perceive and make distinctions in the moods, intention, motivation, and feeling of other people. The examples of this
intelligence are children have many friends, and children have good socialization in school and around them.
19
8 Intrapersonal Intelligence
Intrapersonal is to act adaptively based on knowledge. It can be looked when children show strong will and a freedom attitude.
3. Young Learner Characteristics
