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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter deals with the most important theories that serve as the basis of this study to answer the problems. This chapter will be divided into two major
parts, namely the theoretical description and the theoretical framework.
A. Theoretical Description
In this part, the researcher presents the most important related theories. The selection of theories focuses on instructional design model: Yaldens’
instructional design, theories of learning, young learner characteristics, teaching vocabulary, and games for language teaching.
1. Instructional Design Model: Yalden’s Communicative Syllabus
In this study, the researcher needs an instructional design model to organize the process of designing the over-sized Snake-Ladder game. Therefore,
the researcher considers several theories of instructional design by experts. After considering such theories, the researcher chooses Yalden’s instructional model,
because it is relevant to the topic of this study.
a. Yalden’s Model: Communicative Syllabus
The model of instructional design is presented by Yalden 1987, known as communicative syllabus, serves to describe a classroom experience more
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closely approximates an environment of real language use. In this communicative syllabus, there are 7 seven stages which are defined as follows:
Figure 2.1 The Elements of Yalden’s Instructional Design Yalden, 1987
1 Stage I
This stage is called needs survey part. Yalden 1987 notes that a needs survey is an essential initial stage in the preparation of designing a language-
teaching program p. 101. This stage helps the instructional designer to find out more information and thereby to understand as much information as possible
about the learners prior to the beginning of the program in order to create realistic and acceptable objectives. It means that the object of a needs survey is to gather as
much information as possible about the learners in any given situation and about their purposes in studying the target language.
2 Stage II
The second stage of the communicative syllabus is the description of purpose. In this stage, the designer has to clarify the purpose of the language program.
Selectiond evelopment
of syllabus type
Production of a proto-
syllabus Production
of a pedagogical
syllabus Developm
ent and implemen
tation of classroom
procedure s
Evaluat ion
Description of purpose
Needs survey
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Yalden 1987 emphasizes that this stage establishes the foundation for the major decisions in which the language course designer faces when he or she goes to the
next stage p. 105.
3 Stage III
In this stage, the designer makes a choice regarding the syllabus type which is going to be implemented in the language-teaching program. Yalden 1987
suggests combining various syllabus types, because there is no single model of syllabus designs which is universally agreed upon p. 108. The designer can
combine various syllabus types, ranging from a modification of existing structural syllabuses to a completely learner-centered approach.
4 Stage IV
After completing stage I to III, the designer should describe the content of the syllabus chosen in stage IV which is called the proto-syllabus. Yalden 1987
notes that the content should include general notions as well as specific topics, communicative functions, discourse and rhetorical skills, the variety of language,
role-sets, and communicative events p. 138.
5 Stage V
The next stage is called pedagogical syllabus. In this stage, the designer should provide a list of words and phrases, chosen as models of functions and
suitable for the topics identified as important to the learner. Yalden 1987
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describes that choosing and carrying out communicative activities of a wide variety is the teacher’s role in this stage p. 144.
6 Stage VI
This stage consists of two 2 major steps, namely the development of classroom procedures and the teacher training. In this stage, the designer or the
teacher should make a selection of exercise types and teaching techniques, as well as the preparation of lesson plans and weekly schedules. Moreover, in this stage,
Yalden 1987 says that there are some briefings or workshops on the principles, the desired outcome of the language-teaching program, and the exploration of
teaching material p. 89.
7 Stage VII
The last step of this communicative syllabus is the evaluation. In this stage, the first evaluation that should be done is evaluating the students in the program.
Then, the teaching as well as the over-all design of the course should be assessed. According to Yalden 1987, at last materials and teaching approaches should be
revised, if there is disagreement p. 96.
2. Theories of Learning
Kategori