c. Zero Category
Table 2.3 Techniques and Examples of Minus Category in Materials Adaptation Tomlinson and Masuhara, 2004: 15- 16
Techniques Examples
Modification Teachers may make changes in instructions
Replacement Teachers may swap one activity into another
Reorganization Teachers may change the position of texts
and illustrations Resequencing
Teachers may change the sequence of activities
Conversion Teachers may change the genre of text from
narrative to poem, or move the content from one medium to another e.g. from print
to a web
3. Communicative Language Teaching CLT
a. Background
The origins of Communicative Language Teaching CLT are to be found in the changes in the British language teaching tradition dating late 1960s. Wilkins
1972 proposed a functional or communication of language that could serve as a basis for developing communicative syllabuses for language teaching. Wilkin‟s
contribution was an analysis of the communicative meanings that a language learner needs to understand and express. Furthermore, he described two types of
meanings: notional categories concepts such as time, sequence, quantity, location, frequency and categories of communicative function request, denial,
offers, complaints. Since 1970s the scope of Communicative Language Teaching has
expanded. It was an approach that aims to a make communicative competence the goal of language teaching and b develop procedures for the teaching of the
four language skills that acknowledge the interdependence of language and communication Richards and Rodgers, 2001: 155. Littlewood 1981: 1 states,
“One of the most characteristic features of Communicative Language Teaching is that it pays systematic attention to functional aspect of language”. Finocchiaro and
Brumfit 1983 contrast the major distinctive features of the Audiolingual Method and the Communicative Approach.
Audiolingual method attends to structure and form more than meaning. It demands memorization of structure-based dialogues. The linguistic competence is
the desire goal. Accuracy, in terms of formal correctness, is a primary goal. The teacher controls the learners and prevents them from doing anything that conflict
with the theory. The teacher is expected to specify the language that students are to use. Students are expected to interact with language system.
In contrast, Communicative Language Teaching puts meaning as the most important element in the learning process. Dialogues, if used, center around
communicative functions and are not normally memorized. Communicative competence is the desire goal i.e., the ability to use the linguistic system
effectively and appropriately. Fluency and acceptable language is the primary goal; accuracy is judged not in the abstract but in context. Teachers help learners
in any way that motivates them to work with the language. The teacher cannot know exactly what language the students will use. And the last is students are
expected to interact with other people pair and group work.
b. The Principles of CLT
This study was intended to activate the extracurricular English Club‟s students of SMP Kanisius Pakem in their speaking activity. The researcher uses
Communicative Language Teaching as the approach because this is suitable in teaching speaking. As Littlewood 1981 said that Communicative Language
Teaching promotes to introduce the students to the authentic communicative situation. In other word, the learning process should really give the students
enough chances to experience the situation that are closely similar to the communication activities.
Communicative Language Teaching is a theory of language that starts from a communicative model of language and language use, and that seeks to
translate this into a design for an instructional system, materials, teacher and learner roles and behaviors, classroom activities and techniques. The goal of
Communicative Language Teaching as Hymes 1972 stated in Richards and Rodgers 2001: 159 is communicative competence. His theory about
communicative competence is a definition of what a speaker needs to know in order to be communicatively competent in a speech community. As stated by
Richards and Rodgers 2001:161, some of the characteristic of this communicative view of language as follows:
1 Language is a system for expression of meaning.
2 The primary function of language is to allow interaction and
communication.
