A set of English instructional speaking materials for the registration and information staff of Panti Rapih Hospital using communicative language teaching

COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING

A THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

By Stefani Adelita

051214024

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

i

A SET OF ENGLISH INSTRUCTIONAL SPEAKING MATERIALS FOR THE REGISTRATION AND INFORMATION STAFF

OF PANTI RAPIH HOSPITAL USING COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING

A THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

By Stefani Adelita

051214024

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

iv

“Betapa tak terbe

rkahi hidup dalam kecemasan, betapa

tanpa rahmat hidup dalam kegelisahan. Setiap orang harus

mampu menguak tempurung kegelapannya, setiap orang

harus berjuang menguak ketakutannya.”

(Seno Gumira Ajidarma, Negeri Senja, KPG, 2003)

v

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY

I honestly declare that this thesis, which I have written, does not contain the work or parts of the work of other people, except those cited in the quotations and the references, as a scientific paper should.

Yogyakarta, January 21, 2010 The Writer

Stefani Adelita 051214014

vi

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS

Yang bertanda tangan di bawah ini, saya Mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma: Nama : Stefani Adelita

Nomor Mahasiswa : 051214024

Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:

“A SET OF ENGLISH INSTRUCTIONAL SPEAKING MATERIALS

FOR THE REGISTRATION AND INFORMATION STAFF OF PANTI RAPIH HOSPITAL USING

COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING”

beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan, mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di Internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya tetap selama mencantumkan nama saya sebagai penulis.

Demikian pernyataan ini yang saya buat dengan sebenarnya. Dibuat di Yogyakarta

Pada tanggal: 28 Februari 2010 Yang menyatakan

vii ABSTRACT

Adelita, Stefani. 2010. A Set of English Instructional Speaking Materials for the Registration and Information Staff of Panti Rapih Hospital Using Communicative Language Teaching. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

This study was intended to design a set of English instructional speaking materials for the Registration and Information staff of Panti Rapih Hospital using Communicative Language Teaching. The study discussed two problems. The first problem concerned with how a set of English instructional speaking materials for the Registration and Information staff of Panti Rapih Hospital is designed. The second problem is what the designed set of materials looked like.

In order to solve the problems, the writer conducted review of related literature upon which the study was laid down. In the theoretical review, the writer discussed the Instructional Design Models, Communicative Language Teaching, Speaking Skill, and English for Specific Purposes. There were two kinds of survey research conducted in this study. The first survey was needs

survey that was used to analyze the learners’ needs in learning English. The

second survey was for the instructors of English courses and a lecturer of the English Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University to obtain the evaluation and feedback on the designed materials.

To conduct this study, the writer employed Research and Development (R&D), which consisted of ten steps. In the study, the writer only employed the first five steps of R & D method. Those steps are (1) research and information collecting, (2) planning, (3) developing preliminary form of product, (4) preliminary field testing, and (5) main product revision.

To answer the first question, the writer applied seven stages of

instructional design model, which was adapted from Yalden’s and Dick and Reiser’s models. The stages were (1) diagnosing learners’ needs, (2) formulating

the goals and objective, (3) developing and implementing the classroom procedure, (4) designing the syllabus and the lesson plans, (5) designing the materials, (6) evaluating the materials, and (7) revising the materials.

To answer the second question, the writer presented the English instructional speaking materials for the Registration and Information staff of Panti Rapih Hospital using Communicative Language Teaching. The materials consisted of eight units. Each units consisted of four sections, namely Let Us Try!, Keep In Mind!, Practice All This Way!, and Use What You Have Learned!.

Based on the respondents’ evaluation on the designed materials, the results showed that the mean ranged from 3.2 up to 4.6 on the scale of 5.00. This showed that the materials were acceptable to be taught for the Registration and Information staff of Panti Rapih Hospital. However, it is expected that the other researchers will implement the designed materials.

viii ABSTRAK

Adelita, Stefani. 2010. A Set of English Instructional Speaking Materials for the Registration and Information Staff of Panti Rapih Hospital Using Communicative Language Teaching. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Studi ini bertujuan untuk merancang seperangkat materi pengajaran kemampuan berbicara bahasa Inggris untuk staff Registrasi dan Informasi Rumah Sakit Panti Rapih dengan menggunakan Communicative Language Teaching. Studi ini mendiskusikan dua permasalahan. Permasalahan pertama memberi perhatian pada bagaimana merancang seperangkat materi pengajaran kemampuan berbicara bahasa Inggris bagi staff Registrasi dan Informasi Rumah Sakit Panti Rapih? Masalah yang kedua adalah bagaimanakah bentuk rancangan materi pengajaran kemampuan berbicara bahasa Inggris tersebut?

Dalam rangka menjawab permasalahan tersebut, penulis melakukan studi pustaka. Dalam telaah teoritis, penulis mendiskusikan Instructional Design Model, Communicative Language Teaching, Speaking skill, dan English for Specific Purposes. Ada dua macam penelitian survei yang dilakukan dalam studi ini. Survei pertama adalah survei kebutuhan yang digunakan untuk menganalisa kebutuhan-kebutuhan siswa dalam mempelajari bahasa Inggris. Survei kedua diperuntukkan bagi instruktur kursus bahasa Inggris dan dosen Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Universitas Sanata Dharma untuk mendapatkan evaluasi dan masukan dari rancangan materi.

Untuk melakukan studi ini, penulis memanfaatkan Research and Development Method (R&D) yang terdiri dari sepuluh tahap. Namun dalam studi ini, penulis hanya menggunakan lima langkah pertama dari R&D Method. Langkah-langkah tersebut adalah (1) research and information collecting, (2) planning, (3) developing preliminary form of product, (4) preliminary field testing, and (5) main product revision.

Untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama, penulis menerapkan tujuh langkah dari model instruksional yang diadaptasi dari Yalden dan Dick and Reiser model. Langkah-langkah tersebut adalah (1) mendiagnosa kebutuhan siswa, (2) merumuskan tujuan dan indikator, (3) mengembangkan dan mengimplementasikan proseur kelas, (4) merancang silabus dan rencana pembelajaran, (5) merancang materi, (6) mengevaluasi materi, dan (7) merevisi materi.

Untuk menjawab pertanyaan kedua, penulis menyajikan seperangkat materi pengajaran kemampuan berbicara bahasa Inggris untuk staff Registrasi dan Informasi Rumah Sakit Panti Rapih dengan menggunakan Communicative Language Teaching. Materi ini terdiri dari 8 unit. Masing-masing unit berisikan 4 bab. Let Us Try!, Keep In Mind!, Practice All This Way!, dan Use What You Have Learned!.

Dari hasil evaluasi rancangan materi, didapatkan nilai rata-rata yang berkisar antara 3,2 – 4,6 pada skala 5,00. Hal ini menunjukkan bahwa rancangan materi pembelajaran tersebut bisa diterima serta digunakan untuk mengajar staff

ix

Registrasi dan Informasi Rumah Sakit Panti Rapih. Bagaimanapun juga, penulis mengharapkan peneliti-peneliti lainnya dapat mengimplementasikan rancangan materi tersebut.

x

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Firstly, I would like to express my greatest gratitude to the Almighty Jesus Christ for His love, grace, and blessings in my life. God makes everything happen at the right time.

My greatest gratitude honor goes to Drs. Y. B. Gunawan, M.A. for his guidance, patience, and support to finish this thesis. I thank him for his advice, corrections, suggestions, and time to read my thesis thoroughly. I am deeply grateful to all the lecturers of the English Language Education Study Program for guiding and teaching me during my study in Sanata Dharma University. I sincerely thank Ouda Teda Ena, S.Pd., M.Pd. and Dr. Retno Muljani, M.Pd., my academic advisors, for their guidance and support during my study. Furthermore, I would like to say thanks to all secretariat staff of the English Language Education Study Program for always helping me with the administrative matters. I am thankful to all the librarians of Sanata Dharma University for giving me their kind service in the library.

I deliver my best thanks to the Registration and Information staff of Panti Rapih Hospital Yogyakarta, Bapak Markus and Bapak Parji, who has giving me time, help, permission, and willingness to conduct the study in Panti Rapih Hospital Yogyakarta. I would also give my special thanks to twenty respondents from the Registration and Information staff for their willingness to help me conduct my research. Moreover, I sincerely thank five respondents for their time to give suggestions, comments, and feedback of the materials.

xi

I also extend my deep gratitude to my parents, Papa MC. Putut Supriyanto Heru Sarjono and Mama Hertje Olga Rondonuwu. I thank them for their love, care, patience, advice, support, and never-ending prayer for me. I would like to give my deepest love to my brothers, Mas Leo Giovani Marcel and Rafael Adventino, my sisters Mba Yovita Dwi Arini, Monica Septiani, and Carolina Betani, for their love, support, advice, and the wonderful moments we have shared together. I am grateful to my big family, Eyang Karno Wiryoatmojo family and Opa Alm. Nicolaus Rondonuwu family for giving me the very best support in my life.

My special thanks are addressed to all my lovely friends: the Anugerah Dormitory members, Mba Titin, Mba Yanti, Yoyo, Yophie, Tina, Mba Icha, Mba Shanti, Okti, Mba GuBe, Mba Cimot, Mba Dewi, Ririn, Nanda and Monic for the friendship, support, and laughter we have spent together. Next, I will never forget the beautiful process and experiences with my Play Performance

“Linzanzuzip” friends “Love Her Still”, Listyan, Dee, Endru, Putri, Intan,

Phia, Devy, Sedik, Disty, Linda, Lucia, and Helen. My gratitude also goes to my SPD team “Dilligenia Seven Course”: Devy, Lia, Phia, Mba Lulu, Mas Ignas, and Mas Lexy. I thank them for their struggle, ideas, cooperation, and all happy and sad experiences during teaching in Kalasan.

In addition, I would like to thank Amung Abee for giving me his guidance and support during making this thesis. I thank Paduan Suara Mahasiswa Cantus Firmus for the unforgettable moments. I also thank to my friends, Angga, Siska, Sano, Vendry, Kornel Aringga, and Endah, the twelve generation of SMA

xii

Pangudi Luhur Van Lith, and PAVALI for sharing valuable moments. Last but not least, my gratitude also goes to all PBI 2005 students, for the moments during the study in Sanata Dharma University, and to all the people whose names cannot be mentioned one by one here. May God bless us forever.

Stefani Adelita

xiii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TITLE PAGE ... i

APPROVAL PAGES ... ii

PAGE OF DEDICATION ... iv

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ... v

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ... vi

ABSTRACT ... vii

ABSTRAK ... viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... x

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... xiii

LIST OF TABLES ... xviii

LIST OF FIGURES ... xix

LIST OF APPENDICES ... xx

CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION ... 1

A. Research Background ... 1

B. Problem Formulation ... 4

C. Problem Limitation... 4

D. Research Objectives ... 6

E. Research Benefits ... 6

xiv

CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ... 10

A. Theoretical Description ... 10

1. English for Specific Purposes (ESP) ... 10

a. Definition and Criteria of ESP ... 10

b. Classification of ESP ... 13

c. ESP Course Design ... 15

d. ESP Syllabus ... 17

2. Instructional Material Design ... 19

a. Yalden’s Model ... 19

b. Dick’s and Reiser’s Model ... 21

3. Teaching Speaking using Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) ... 23

a. The Nature of CLT ... 23

1)Theory of Learning ... 24

2)The Communicative Competence ... 24

3)The Communicative Task ... 26

4)Teacher Roles ... 29

5)Learner Roles ... 29

6)Types of Learning and Teaching Activities in CLT ... 30

b. The Nature of Speaking ... 31

xv

d. Communicative Learning Activities and

Techniques in CLT ... 34

1)Communicative Interaction Activities ... 35

2)Communicative Fluency Activities ... 37

B. Theoretical Framework ... 47

CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY ... 51

A. Research Method ... 51

B. Settings ... 56

C. Research Participants ... 56

1. The Participants of Needs Survey ... 56

2. The Participants of the Survey on the Designed Materials ... 56

D. Research Instruments ... 57

1. Interview ... 57

2. Questionnaires ... 57

a. Questionnaire of Needs Survey ... 57

b. Questionnaire of the Survey on the Designed Materials ... 58

E. Data Gathering Techniques ... 59

1. Interview ... 59

2. Questionnaires ... 59

a. Needs Survey ... 59

xvi

F. Data Analysis Techniques ... 60

1. Needs Survey ... 60

2. Survey on the Designed Materials ... 60

G. Research Procedure ... 62

CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS... 63

A. The Elaboration of the Steps in Designing the Materials ... 63

1. Diagnosing Learners’ Needs ... 64

a. Learners’ Needs Based on the Interview ... 64

b. Learners’ Needs Based on the Questionnaire.... 65

2. Formulating the Goal and Objectives ... 68

3. Developing and Implementing the Classroom Procedures ... 72

4. Designing the Syllabus and Lesson Plan ... 73

5. Designing the Materials... 74

6. Evaluating the Materials ... 74

7. Revising the Materials ... 74

B. Findings and Discussion on the Designed Materials Evaluation ... 74

1. Preliminary Field Testing ... 75

a. The Descriptions of the Respondents ... 75

b. The Data Presentation ... 76

xvii

d. Respondents’ Comments and Suggestions

on the Designed Materials ... 77

2. Final Product Revision ... 79

C. Presentation o the Designed Materials ... 80

CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ... 83

A. Conclusions ... 83

B. Suggestions ... 86

1. For English Instructors ... 87

2. For English Learners ... 87

3. For Other Researchers ... 87

REFERENCES ... 89

xviii

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

2.1. Stages in Language Program Development by Yalden... 20

3.1. The Four Alternative Options of Answer for the Questionnaire of Needs Survey ... 57

3.2. The Degree of Agreement for the Materials Evaluation Questionnaire ... 58

3.3. The Results of Selected Topics from the Questionnaire of Needs Survey ... 60

3.4. The Results of the Preliminary Field Testing from the Materials Evaluation Questionnaire ... 61

4.1. Description of the Respondents of the Needs Survey ... 65

4.2. The List of Learning Media ... 67

4.3. The Respondents Difficulties in English Mastering ... 68

4.4. The List of 8 Top Topics ... 68

4.5. The Goals and General Purposes of each topic of the Designed Materials ... 69

4.6. The Indicators of the Learners’ Performance in Each Topic ... 70

4.7. The Descriptions of the Respondents of the Preliminary Field Testing ... 75

xix

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

2.1. The Branch of ELT, taken from English for Specific Purposes

by Hutchinson and Waters ... 13

2.2. Three-way Distinction According to the Timing of Courses by Strevens ... 14

2.3. Factors Affecting ESP Course Design by Hutchinson and Waters ... 15

2.4. Language Program Development by Yalden ... 20

2.5. Models of Instruction Program Design Suggested by Dick and Reiser... 22

2.6. Frameworks for Analyzing Communicative Task ... 26

2.7. The Process of Communication System ... 32

2.8. Frameworks for the Instructional Material Design ... 50

3.1. R & D Cycle and The Writer’s Model ... 55

xx

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix A : Surat Penerimaan Permohonan Ijin Penelitian ... 92

Appendix B : The Interview Sheet on the Needs Survey ... 94

Appendix C : The Results of the Interview on the Needs Survey ... 97

Appendix D : Questionnaire on the Needs Survey... 100

Appendix E : The Results of the Questionnaire on the Needs Survey ... 107

Appendix F : Syllabus ... 111

Appendix G : Lesson Plans ... 123

Appendix H : Materials Evaluation Questionnaire ... 148

Appendix I : The Result of the Materials Evaluation Questionnaire ... 153

Appendix J : General Description of the Designed Materials ... 155

1 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

This study deals with a set of English instructional speaking materials for the Registration and Information staff of Panti Rapih Hospital using CLT (Communicative Language Teaching). In order to achieve this purpose of the study, some major considerations were taken. Chapter I briefly discusses research background, problem formulation, problem limitation, research objectives, research benefits, and definition of terms.

A. Research Background

English is not only an international language for general communication, but also a language for specific needs. People learn English because they know that English will support their efforts to deepen the knowledge of their fields.

Some people use English as their first language and some use it as their second language. People from the countries that use English as their first language do not find any difficulties since they use it every day and in all activities. On the contrary, some people who speak English as a second language consider that this language is not easy and they learn it because they have to. For example, they study English in Senior High School because it is stated in the curriculum that they have to learn English.

Some people, however, learn English because they enjoy doing it and they have some reasons for it. If they do not know English, they cannot get much

knowledge well. To follow the communication with other people from other countries, people have to understand each other, thus they use English as an international language. Some people want to master English because they think that English can enrich their life, for example, by learning English they can understand the conversation of foreign movies.

Many companies and institutions dealing with international business have no choice but to acquire human resources with the ability to communicate in English. The best interest of the institution, which deals with international business, is a hospital. A hospital serves and helps patients at the hospital. For that purpose, one of the necessary steps to take is to improve its service. Through service improvement, again, the ability of the employees to communicate in English is important, especially with foreign patients.

Therefore, an English training course may consider the necessity to select certain aspects of the target language to be given special prominence in syllabus preparation (Yalden, 1987: 106). As Yalden does that, she turns to programs based on specific needs of the students. These programs are English for specific purpose programs or ESP programs for short. The study focuses on English for Occupational Purposes or EOP, one of basic types of ESP. It means that the students who learn English have to know the reason for learning English, which is

to support the Registration and Information staff’s work.

The writer chose Panti Rapih Hospital considering that foreign patients often visit Panti Rapih. The foreigners visit Panti Rapih Hospital when they are sick, want to check their health, or visit their friends who are being treated in the

hospital. Based on the informal interview with some staff, there are 2 to 3 foreign patient who visited Panti Rapih Hospital everyday. When they visit the hospital,

they need some information. It is the Registration and Information staff’s job to

give the needed information. We know that most of the foreigners speak English, so based on this, the Registration and Information staff have to be able to communicate in English properly. They need to know how to use English language as a function of communication.

The Registration and Information staff has the jobs such as giving information about hospital facilities, doing registration for the patients who want

to examine their health, and asking for the patients’ identities. Therefore, in order

to provide clear information or do the jobs well, the Registration and Information staff has to be ready with their ability in speaking English. So far, based on the

Registration and Information staff’s experience, when they had foreign patients,

they were often confused with how to face the patients.

In this research, the writer used CLT (Communicative Language Teaching) because CLT assisted the writer to design the materials and based on CLT, the students may have their own communicative competence. Communicative competence was a definition of what a speaker needs to know in order to be communicatively competent in a speech community (Hymes, 1972). The writer, then, focused on two kinds of communication learning activities, they are communicative interaction activities and communicative fluency activities. These two basic communicative activities are types of activities in various combinations for developing communicative competence. The writer would use

these communication activities as a tool and example to modify and design the speaking materials.

The writer of this study intended to design English instructional speaking materials for the Registration and Information staff of Panti Rapih Hospital using CLT since they have to communicate well with patients who will face them firstly when patients come to the hospital. This designed materials can also support the Registration and Information staff in doing their jobs. It is expected that the Registration and Information staff will give the best service to the foreigners.

B. Problem Formulation

The problems of this study are formulated as follows:

1. How is a set of English instructional speaking materials for the Registration and Information staff of Panti Rapih Hospital using CLT (Communicative Language Teaching) designed?

2. What does the designed set of English instructional speaking materials for the Registration and Information staff of Panti Rapih Hospital using CLT (Communicative Language Teaching) look like?

C. Problem Limitation

This study was conducted to design English instructional materials for the Registration and Information staff of Panti Rapih Hospital using CLT. Therefore, it only dealt with the Registration and Information staff. The reason behind this was that the Registration and Information staff officers, who work in the front

office, face many foreign patients, from 2 to 3 patients everyday. This requires the Registration and Information staff to use English to communicate with and help the foreign patients.

The study was concerned with the design of English instructional speaking materials for the Registration and Information staff of Panti Rapih Hospital. Therefore, it did not cover the whole process of instructional design. The purpose of the study is to design the materials so that the application, implementation, and the evaluation of the materials were not covered with the study.

The study was also concerned with the use of CLT (Communicative Language Teaching) which engages learners in communication and requires the use of such communicative processes as information sharing, negotiation of meaning, and interaction. One of the most characteristic features of communicative language teaching is that it pays attention to the functional as well as structural aspects of language (Littlewood, 1981: 1).

The writer focused on two kinds of communication learning activities, they are communicative interaction activities and communicative fluency activities. These two kinds of communicative activities would be useful to narrow down and specify Communicative Language Teaching as the main theory of the study. These two basic communicative activities would be useful to arrange and design the speaking materials for the participants.

D. Research Objectives

There were two main objectives in this study in relation to the two problems stated in the problem formulation. Firstly, this study described a suitable model to design English instructional speaking materials for the Registration and Information staff of Panti Rapih Hospital using CLT. Secondly, this study provided a complete picture of what the English instructional speaking materials for the Registration and Information staff of Panti Rapih Hospital using CLT.

E. Research Benefits

The study was based on the study of learners’ needs. The materials were

constructed according to the learners’ needs. It is expected that the result of the study, firstly, will also be useful for the Registration and Information Hospital staff. The writer hopes that the English instructional materials designed can give something worthy and can help them to develop their speaking ability using Communicative Language Teaching.

Second, the English materials used in this study can also become examples for the English instructors. By having examples of the English materials for the Registration and Information Hospital staff, the English instructors will find it easier to select the materials for the Registration and Information Hospital staff.

Finally, this study will be useful for those who compose an English instructional program for the Registration and Information Hospital staff. This can be used as an input to make a better program in order to obtain better results, so

that the English lesson for the Registration and Information Hospital staff can undergo improvement.

F. Definition of Terms

This section presents some key words in the study. In order to avoid the different perceptions to these key words, here, some related terms are discussed. 1. Speaking Ability

If there is only one person is talking we cannot consider it as a communication because communication needs an interaction between the speakers. Paulstan (1976) in her book defines speaking as a competent to communicate in the target language. In this study, the term speaking ability or oral communication refers to an activity involving two or more people, as the participants are both hearers and speakers having to react to what they are and make their contributions at high speed (Johnson and Morrow, 1983 as cited in Paulstan, 1976: 70).

2. Instructional Materials

The materials can be in the form of printed materials, computer-assisted instruction and televised instruction (Dick and Reiser, 1989: 3). Textbooks, journals, and newspaper are the examples of printed materials and can be used as the materials for instructions. In this study, the term instructional materials refer to “the materials that is planned and designed by

3. Instructional Materials Design

Dick and Reiser (62-67) stated that the instructional materials design is done in order to set the content of instruction. According to Klerk (7) Instructional program design involves designing instructional materials and selecting methods and media. Instructional program design is based on the learning goal and objectives. As the consequence, designing the instructional materials is also based on the instructional goal and objectives.

According to Tom Hutchinson and Alan Waters in their book English for Specific Purposes (106), materials design is one of the most characteristic features of English for Special Purposes in practice. Designing materials for instructions is not the same as choosing and using existing textbooks or other materials, instead, it is the same as creating new materials that fit the learning objectives and specific subject area of particular learner.

In this study, the term instructional materials design refers to a part of an instructional program design, which is the beginning part of the instructional process.

4. CLT (Communicative Language Teaching)

The Communicative Approach in language teaching starts from a theory of language as communication. The goal of language teaching is to

develop which refers to as “communicative competence”. In this study, the

term CLT approach deals with a method ,which has distinctive features language learning, is learning to communicate and the target linguistic system will be learned best through the process of struggling to communicate, and

accuracy is jugged not in the abstract but in context (Finocchiaro and Brumfit, 1983).

5. The Registration and Information Staff of Panti Rapih Hospital

In this study, the term the Registration and Information Staff of Panti Rapih Hospital refers to the front office staff of Panti Rapih Hospital Yogyakarta who has a job to organize the registration process of patients and give information about the hospital. The staff directly faces the patients when they want to have an appointment with the doctor.

10 CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The discussion in this chapter is divided into two subjects. First is the theoretical description that supports the research and the second is the theoretical framework of the research. On the first discussion, it explains about theories and concepts as the foundation to solve the problems in this research. In the theoretical framework of the research, the researcher presents her summary on the theories performed in the first sub-topics.

A. Theoretical Description

This section covers the theories and or concepts behind the terms used in this study. It explains successively: English for Specific Purposes (ESP), Instructional Materials Design, and Teaching Speaking using Communicative Language Teaching (CLT).

1. English for Specific Purposes

In this study, the writer discusses the definition and criteria of ESP, classification of ESP, and ESP course design. By presenting this part, the writer gives an overall view of what makes this study becomes a part of ESP. a. Definition and Criteria of ESP

According to Pauline C. Robinson (1980: 5), English for Specific Purposes or ESP focuses attention on the purpose of the learner and refers to

the whole range of language resources. In order to understand what is implied by ESP we can continue the quotation from Mackay (pg. 73, as cited in Pauline C. Robinson, 1980: 6): It (here ESP) is generally used to refer to the teaching/learning of a foreign language for a clearly utilitarian purpose of which there is no doubt.

Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 18) give definition of ESP not so much by showing what ESP is, but rather by showing what ESP is not. They stated that:

1) ESP is not a matter of teaching „specialized varieties’ of English. The fact that language is used for a specific purpose does not imply that it is a special form of the language, different kind from other forms.

2) ESP is not just a matter of Science words and grammar for Scientists, Hotel words and grammar for Hotel staff and soon. Differentiating between performance and competence, between what people do with the language and the range of knowledge and abilities which enables them to do it, is very crucial necessities for us.

3) ESP is not different in kind from any other form of language teaching, in that it should be based in the first instance on principles of effective and efficient learning.

Furthermore, Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 18-19) suggested that ESP must be seen as an approach not as a product. It means that ESP is not a particular kind of language methodology, nor does it consist of a particular type of teaching material. ESP is an approach to language learning, which is based on learner need. ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner’s reason for learning (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 19).

Robinson (1991) discusses another side of ESP that is the criteria of an ESP course. She states the criteria as follows:

1) ESP is normally goal directed.

People learn English is not merely because they are interested in English generally, but because they really need it for study or work purpose. Considering this, the materials and activities for ESP course must be appropriate with the purpose of their study or work.

2) ESP course is based on a needs analysis.

A needs analysis is carried out to specify as closely as possible what exactly the people have to do in learning English. Therefore, needs analysis should be obtained first before conducting the course.

3) There is usually clearly period for the course.

The time available depends on and after the objectives have been specified.

4) People who learn ESP are usually adults rather than children. 5) People who learn ESP in class should be identical.

It means that people studying in the same class must have the same kind of job or specialist.

Strevens (1980: 108-109), makes of his criteria for defining ESP: ESP entails the provision of English language instruction: (i) devised to meet the learner’s particular needs; (ii) related in themes and topics to designated occupations or areas of study; (iii) selective (i.e. „not general’) as to language content; (iv) when indicated, restricted as to language “skills” included.

The course is designed to satisfy the identical needs which will be fairly specific and which will be occupation or study based (Robinson, 1980: 12).

b. Classification of ESP

Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 16-17) divide ESP into two main types differentiated according to whether the learner requires English for academic study (EAP: English for Academic Purposes) or for work/training (EOP/EVP/VESL: English for Occupational Purposes/ English for Vocational Purposes/ Vocational English as a Second Language).

At the next level, it is also possible to distinguish ESP courses by the

general nature of the learner’s specialization. Here, the levels are usually

identified into three large categories namely: EST (English for Science and Technology), EBE (English for Business and Economics), and ESS (English for Social Sciences). Times of learning are pre-study, in-study, and post-study. The clearer explanation about ESP is in the following figure:

English Language Teaching (ELT)

English as L1(EMT English as Foreign Language (EFL) English as L2(ESL)

General English (GE) English for Specific Purposes(ESP)

English for Business English for Science English for Social Sciences

and Economics(EBE) and Technology(EST) (ESS)

EAP EOP/EVP EAP EOP/EVP EAP EOP/EVP

Figure 2.1. The Branch of ELT, taken from English for Specific Purposes by Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 17)

ESL can be divided in the

same way as EFL

The writer classified „A Set of English Instructional Speaking Materials for the Registration and Information staff of Panti Rapih hospital using CLT’ into English for Occupational or Vocational Purposes (EOP) under the English for Business and Economics (EBE) since the Registration and Information staff need English for their occupation.

Mackay and Mountford (as cited in Robinson, 1980: 6) suggest three kind of purpose in ESP:

1) Occupational requirements, e.g. for international telephone operators, civil airline pilots, etc.

2) Vocational training programs, e.g. for hotel and catering staff, technical trades, etc.

3) Academic or professional study, e.g. engineering, medicine, law, etc.

Strevens (as cited in Robinson, 1980: 6-7) suggests that „All special purpose language teaching courses are either occupational or educational in

nature.’ He makes a further three-way distinction according to the timing courses, and produces the following figure:

Figure 2.2. Three-way Distinction According to the Timing of Courses by

Strevens (pg. 81, as cited in Robinson, 1980: 7)

Pre - experience

Simultaneous

In - study Post - experience

Pre - study

Post - study Occupational

Educational SP – LT (or

ESP course Syllabus Methodology Nature of particular target and learning situation HOW? Learning theories WHAT? Language descriptions WHO? WHY? WHERE? WHEN? Needs analysis c. ESP Course Design

According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 21), designing a course may provide a basis in process of syllabus design, materials writing, classroom teaching, and evaluation. Designing a course also seems like asking a general and specific questions, and theoretical and practical questions. We need to know:

1) Why does the student need to learn?

2) Who is going to be involved in the process?

3) Where is the learning to take place? What potential does the place provide? What limitations does it impose?

4) When is the learning to take place? How much time is available? How will it be distributed?

5) What does the student need to learn? What aspects of language will be needed and how will they be described? What level of proficiency must be achieved? What topic areas will need to be covered?

6) How will the learning be achieved? What learning theory will underlie the course? What kind of methodology will be employed? (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 21-22).

We might represent their relationship like this:

Figure 2.3. Factors Affecting ESP Course Design by Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 22)

Designing an ESP course requires a careful steps and preparations. We need an outline of the principal stages of task-analysis to be followed in approaching the design of teaching and learning program (Strevens, 1980: 109).

1) A detailed analysis of the learner’s needs.

ESP is not „general English’ and the learners can give information

about the aims, purposes, needs, wants, roles, functions, etc., for which English is required.

2) Determination of the extent of scientific/technical content.

Since English in ESP is widely used in science and technology, thus teacher in ESP should recognize the importance of the rhetorical, discoursal, and communicative features of scientific English.

3) Determination whether needs are „educational’ or „occupational’.

The needs of the learners may lean either learning English as a component of their studies or learning English for their occupation. 4) Determination whether instruction in English precedes

educational/occupational training, follows it, or is concurrent with it. 5) Preparations of suitable syllabuses and teaching materials.

In principle, every ESP learner or group of learners has its own identifying profile of needs and purposes, its individual syllabus, its own rage of teaching materials, and its own appropriate methodology (Strevens, 1980: 109-112).

The writer focused on learning-centered course design since this approach takes account of the learner at every stage of the design process. This has two implications: first, course design is a negotiated process and second, course design is a dynamic process. Then, these two implications helped the writer in making the theoretical framework of this study.

d. ESP Syllabus

A syllabus plays a very important role for teachers in designing an instruction. In the book ESP Today: A Practitioner’s Guide, Pauline C.

Robinson (1991: 34) defines syllabus as “a plan of work used by the teacher as a guideline and context for class content”. Since a syllabus is a statement

of the plan of any part of curriculum, its existence is very important to give the teacher the description of the whole content of the course and how the plan should be brought into reality. Without it, the teacher will not have the idea of what the course is alike and to what direction it should be brought.

The more representative is taken for the summary of syllabus types given by Pauline C. Robinson (1991: 34-45). In this summary, there are basically three types of syllabus: 1) content-based / product syllabus, 2) method-based / process syllabus, and 3) skill-based syllabus in between. 1) Content-based or Product Syllabus

Content-based or product syllabus consists of:

a) Structural syllabus, consisting of an ordered set of language items, typically graded by supposed difficulty of learning.

b) Notional/functional syllabus: in which notions or functions become the basic units of learning. (These two kinds of syllabus are called analytic syllabus).

c) Situation or contextual focus syllabus: in which situation (e.g. registering for a course, visiting a doctor, at the bank, etc.) becomes the basis of activities.

d) Topic/informational focus syllabus: consisting topics relevant to the

students or to the content of the student’s work or specialist study.

2) Method-based or Process Syllabus

This category can be distinguished into two sub-categories, one being variously referred to as:

a) Method, process or learning process syllabus: the key feature of this kind of syllabus is that what happens in the classroom is a matter for negotiation between the students and the teacher to determine the content and process of learning.

b) Task or procedural syllabus: consisting of a set of task or activities ordered according to cognitive difficulty. Class activities are devoted to performance of the task, and conscious attention to or discussion on language is needed if it is necessary for completion of the task.

3) Skill-based Syllabus

Skill-based syllabus, as mentioned before, is between content-based or product syllabus and method-based or process syllabus. There are two kinds of skill-based syllabus:

a) Based on language skill: divided into four skills, namely productive speaking and writing, and receptive reading and listening.

b) Based on learning skill: looking at the constituents of the language skill that is sub-skills and micro-skills (Robinson, 1991: 34-35).

Based on the explanation of ESP categorization, the writer classified

„A Set of English Instructional Speaking Materials for the Registration and Information staff of Panti Rapih hospital using CLT (Communicative

Language Teaching)’ into English for Occupational or Vocational Purposes (EOP), which is one example of English for Specific Purposes (ESP), since the Registration and Information staff need English for their occupation.

2. Instructional Material Design

The instructional material design is an integral part of instructional program design. In order to get the theories of instructional material design, models of instructional program design are absolutely needed. There are many instructional program design models. The study employed Janice Yalden and Walter Dick and Robert A. Reiser.

a. Yalden’s Model

The first model is adopted from language program development by Janice Yalden. Instructional material design is seen as only part of the whole, although it is very important. It is clear that if there is no instructional design, the process of teaching and learning will not succeed. Having a syllabus is not

the same thing as teaching material and lesson plans. Therefore, Yalden presents the process of language program development that can be seen in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4. Language Program Development by Yalden (1987: 88)

The stages of the model are described in the following table:

Table 2.1. Stages in Language Program Development by Yalden (1987: 89) Stages Description

I II

III IV V

Selection or Development Need survey

Description of purpose to be prepared in terms of: 1. Student characteristics

2. Student skill on entry to and on exit from program

Selection or development of syllabus type in terms of IV and physical constrains on the program.

The proto-syllabus: description of language and language use to be covered in the program.

The pedagogical syllabus: development of teaching, learning and testing approaches:

1. Development of teaching materials (as far as possible) 2. Development of testing sequence and decision on testing

instrument.

3. Development of classroom procedures:

a. selection of exercises types and teaching technique b. preparation of lessons plans

c. preparation of weekly schedules 4. Teacher training briefing or workshops on:

a. Principles b. desired outcome

c. exploitation/creation of teaching material Need Survey Descripti on of Purpose Selection/ developm ent of syllabus type Production of a protosyllabus Production of a pedagogical syllabus Developm ent and implemen tation of classroom procedure Evaluation

Table 2.1. (continued) Stages Description VI

VII

Evaluation: 1. of student 2. of program 3. of teaching Recycling stage:

1. congruence or „fit’ between goals and students performance is determined

2. Content is reassessed materials and methodological procedure revised.

b. Dick’s and Reiser’s Model

The second model of instructional design suggested by Walter Dick and Robert A. Reiser (1989) is chosen. According to this model, an instructional design has a number of components, namely:

1) Instructional goals 2) Objectives for each goal 3) Test items for each objectives

4) Instructional activities for each objective, which require: a) Content

b) Type of instructional activities

c) Means of presenting instructional activities

Among these components, the instructional material refers to the content. Meanwhile, the step of designing the instructional program, in which the instructional material can be found out, can be seen in Figure 2.5.:

Figure 2.5. Models of Instruction Program Design Suggested by Dick and Reiser (1989: 4)

From the two instructional models above, the writer would not use all of those steps, however some steps will be used and the others will not be

used. The writer will combine the two instructional models. From Yalden’s

model, the writer takes first step namely needs survey. In the Communicative Language Teaching, needs survey is very important because it will be used to decide which materials will be developed. The writer also takes step 3, 4, and 5 to make the syllabus and lesson plans. Step 6 and 7 will be used as the evaluation of the materials.

Set Goal

Write Objectives

Develop Test

Develop Instructional Activities

Choose Instructional Media

Implement Instruction

Analyze Students’ Characteristics Select/Review Texts

Dick’s andReiser’s first and second step is used to determine the goals and objectives of the designed materials. Step 4 from Dick and Reiser also determines the activities to be used in the materials. Both Yalden and Dick and Reiser use evaluation and revision as the final step for their model. The writer takes this step because it is used for measuring the outcome of the materials designed. It is very important to obtain evaluation values in order to revise the designed materials.

3. Teaching Speaking using Communicative Language Teaching

In this section, the writer mentions about the theory of speaking and the theory of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), which are the important issues to be considered, based on the aim of the study, designing a speaking material using Communicative Language Teaching. This section discusses The Nature of CLT, The Nature of Speaking, Teaching Speaking in CLT, and Communicative Learning Activities and Techniques in CLT. a. The Nature of CLT

Nunan (1989: 12) states a view, which has underpinned Communicative Language Teaching. Language is now generally seen as a dynamic resource for the creation of meaning. Moreover, in learning,

language is accepted that we need to differentiate between “learning that” and “knowing how”. One of the most characteristic features of communicative language teaching is that it pays attention to the functional as well as structural aspects of language (Littlewood, as cited in Richards and Rogers,

2001: 166). In CLT, class time should be spent not on language drills or controlled practice leading towards communicative language use, but in activities which require learners to do in class what they will have to do outside (Nunan, 1988: 26).

1) Theory of Learning

According to Johnson as cited in Richards and Rogers (2001: 161), there are some elements of underlying learning theory that can be discerned in some CLT practices:

a)Communicative principle

This consists of activities that involve real communication to promote learning.

b)Task principle

This principle includes the activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks that promote learning.

c) Meaningfulness principle

This principle assumes language that is meaningful to the learners can support the learning process.

2) The Communicative Competence

Communicative competence should be developed effectively since it

becomes the goal of language teaching. Hymes’s theory of communicative

competence was a definition of what a speaker needs to know in order to be communicatively competent in a speech community. In Hymes view, a person who acquires communicative competence acquires both knowledge

and ability for language use (Hymes, as cited in Richards and Rogers, 2001: 159).

CLT cannot be separated from communicative competence. Savignon (1997: 14-15) defines communicative competence as:

a) Communicative competence is a dynamic rather than static concept. It means that communicative competence depends on the understanding between people who communicate, whether or not they can understand each other.

b) Communicative competence occurs in written and oral language.

c) Communicative competence is context specific. Communication takes

place in different context and the success of it depends on the speakers’

understanding of the context.

d) Competence and performance are different. Competence is the knowledge of language, what one knows about the language.

e) Communicative competence is relative and depends on the cooperation of all participants.

According to Canale and Swain (as cited in Richards and Rogers, 2001: 160), there are four major dimensions of communicative competence. They are grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic competences. The learners and teachers should understand these four dimensions since it prepare the learners to use them in different functions and contexts.

3) The Communicative Task

CLT contains a set of communicative tasks. Nunan defines the communicative task as classroom work which focuses on meaning rather than form (1998:18). Learners first need to understand the structural pattern of English as the target language, then to be able to perform English communicative way using appropriate structural pattern. The goal of the course is to make the learners to be able to use English communicatively, not to comprehend English structural pattern. A task consists of input, related activities, goals, roles of teachers, and learners, and a setting. They are set out in the figure 6:

Figure 2.6. Frameworks for Analyzing Communicative Task

The following is the explanation of the three components of analyzing the communicative task as stated by Nunan (1989).

a)Goals

Goals may relate to a range of general outcomes (communicative, affective, or cognitive) or may directly describe teacher or learner behavior. Goals are not always explicitly stated. We can know the goals from an examination of a task.

Goals

Input

Activities Setting

Learner role Teacher role

b)Input

A task consists of some inputs and one or more related activities. Input refers to the data that is from the point of departure for the task. In fact, input for communicative tasks can be gathered from a wide range of data sources suggested by Hover: Letters (formal/informal), hotel entertainment, family tree, street map, hotel brochures, memo note, menu, and magazine quiz.

c) Activities

Activities specify what learners will actually do with the input as the beginning of learning task. Nunan (1989) proposed three general ways of characterizing activities, namely: rehearsal for the real world, skills use, and fluency/accuracy. Pattison as stated by Nunan (1989: 68) proposes seven activity types. Those types stated as follow:

(1) Questions and answer

The aim of this activity is for learners to discover their classmates’ secret choices. This activity can be used to practice almost any structure, function, or nation.

(2) Dialogues and role-play

By doing role-plays, the learners may participate more willingly and learn more thoroughly than when they are told to repeat a given dialogue in pairs on in a group.

(3) Matching activities

The task for the learner is to recognize matching items, or to complete pairs or sets.

(4) Communicative strategies

These activities are designed to encourage learners to practice communication strategies like a paraphrasing, using gestures, and asking for feedback.

(5) Pictures and pictures stories

Many communication activities can be stimulated using pictures. (6) Puzzles and problems

These require learners to make guess or to draw their general knowledge and personal experience, use their imagination and test their powers of logical reasoning.

(7) Discussions and decisions

Those require the learners to collect and share information to reach a decision.

Communicative tasks are emphasized on activities which facilitate the learners to achieve the target, i.e. to communicate in English. The activities focus on meaning and on how effectively the communication takes place rather than on forms. Communicative activity is to provide communication. Therefore, the writer employs the suggested activities from Pattison to facilitate the designed materials.

4) Teacher Roles

According to Breen and Candlin as cited in Richards and Rogers (2001: 167), the teacher is assumed to have several roles in CLT. The roles of the teacher are to:

a) Facilitate the communication process between all participants in the classroom, and between the participants and the activities and texts

b) Act as an independent participant within learning-teaching group (1) Organizer of resources and resources themselves

(2) Guide within the classroom procedures and activities (3) Researcher and learner

c) Determine and respond to learner language needs (need analyst)

d)Exemplify an effective communicator through paraphrase, confirmation, and feedback (counselor)

e) Manage the group process: less teacher-centered but more student-centered management skills

5) Learner Roles

The emphasis in CLT on the process of communication, rather than mastery of language forms, which leads to the different roles for learners from those found in more traditional second language classrooms. In this approach, the learners are acquired to be adaptable, creative, inventive, and independent. Breen and Candlin as cited in Richards and Rogers (2001: 166)

describe the learner’s role within CLT in the following terms:

The role of learner as negotiator – between the self, the learning process, and the object of learning – emerges from and interacts with the role of joint

negotiator within the group undertakes. The implication for the learner is that he should contribute as much as he gains, and thereby learn in an interdependent way.

From this role, students are expected to interact primarily with each other rather than with the teacher, and correction of errors may be absent or infrequent and learners learn to see that failed communication is a joint responsibility and not the fault of speaker or listener.

6) Types of Learning and Teaching Activities in CLT

Littlewood (1981: 20-21), in his book, he distinguished the communicative activities in CLT. There are two main categories:

a)Functional communication activities

Teacher can design the communicative activities in the classroom which emphasize the functional aspect of communication. The main purpose of the activity is that learner should use the language they know in order to get meanings across as effectively as possible. Because of this emphasize on being functionally effective, activities of this type formulates functional communication activities.

b)Social Interaction Activities

One of the important aspects of communication skill is the ability to take account of the social meaning as well as the functional meaning of different language forms (Littlewood, 1981: 20). Expectantly, the competent speakers should use language not only functionally effective, but also appropriate to the social situation they are in. Learners must still aim to convey meanings effectively, but must also pay greater attention to

the social context in which the interaction takes place. Then, role-playing and simulation become important techniques for creating social situation and relationships. Activities of this type are called social interaction activities.

b. The Nature of Speaking

Rivers (1968: 160) stated that students in a foreign language class will not learn to speak fluently merely by hearing speech, although this is important in familiarizing them with the acceptable forms of the code. The teacher will need to give students many opportunities to practice the speaking skills; he will need use his imagination in devising situations which provoke students to the use of the language in the expression of his own meaning within the limits of what he has been learning.

Widdowson (1976: 58) states that speaking is a kind of active and productive characteristic that makes use of aural media. The interaction of speaking is face-to-face interaction that emphasizes on the dialogue, discussion, or other forms of verbal exchange as an act of communication. The important thing is that the learners get more opportunities to practice their speaking skill so that they can speak fluently.

In authentic communication, the process is not always an initiatory one. The form of the utterance a person is generating as frequently been determined for him by some utterances which he has just perceived and to which he is reacting. Typically, this occurs when one is answering a question.

As well as sentence type, the speaker must choose the style of language in which he is going to express himself; this is sometimes called the register or level of discourse (Rivers, 1968: 162-163).

In order to have a clear understanding on the process of speaking, it is important to know the model of communication system. Rivers (1968: 158) states that learning a language is more than learning a description of it, we have to know the process of speaking and listening and can be seen in Figure below.

5)

signal received signal

Figure 2.7. The Process of Communication System (Rivers, 1968: 158) From the model, information source emits a message, which is encoded for transmission as a signal. This signal passes through a channel to a receiver that decodes the message for use as its destination.

Brown and Yule as cited in Nunan (1989: 26) define that spoken language consists of short, often fragmentary utterances, in a range of pronunciations. There is often a great deal of repetition and overlap between one speaker and another.

Brown and Yule (as cited in Nunan, 1989: 27) suggest that, in contrast with the teaching of written language, teachers concerned with teaching spoken language must confront the following types of questions:

Signal

Noise Source Information

Source

- What is the appropriate form of spoken language to teach?

- From the point of view of pronunciation, what is a reasonable model? - How important is pronunciation?

- Is it any more important than teaching appropriate handwriting in the foreign language?

- If so, why?

- From the point of view of the structures taught, is it all right to teach spoken language as if it were exactly like the written language, but with a few „spoken expressions’ thrown in?

- Are those structures which are described in standard grammars the structures which our students should be expected to produce when they speak English?

- How is it possible to give students any sort of meaningful practice in producing spoken English?

Brown and Yule also draw a useful distinction between two basic language functions. These are the transactional function, which is primarily concerned with the transfer of information, and the interactional function, in which the primary purpose of speech is the maintenance of social relationships.

c. Teaching Speaking in CLT

According to Rivers (1968: 160-163), in teaching speaking skills, there are many things to be notice:

1) The teaching of speaking skill is more demanding on the teacher that the teaching of any other language skill.

2) The teacher will need to give the students opportunities to practice the speaking skill. They will need to use their imagination in devising situations which provoke the student to the use of the language in the expression of their own meaning. For this reason, teacher must a natural activity through the imagination for the students.

3) To teach the speaking skill, it is necessary to have a clear understanding of the processes involved in speech. Through speech, man expresses his emotions, communicates his intentions, reacts to other persons and situations, and influences other human beings. Spoken language is, then, a tool for a man.

4) In the teaching of the speaking skill, we are engaged in two processes: forging an instrument and giving the student guided practice in its use. The forging of the instrument requires much practice in the arbitrary associations of the new language: lexical items, morphological and syntactical patterns, sentence types. The guided practice for students like the process of generating new sentences can influence the ability of expressing students’ personal meaning. This smooth integration of processes which the student of a foreign language has to learn by assiduous practice.

d. Communicative Learning Activities and Techniques in CLT

The communicative activities and techniques in CLT are used to help the writer design the materials later. In this section, the writer mentions two main activities. The first activity is Communicative Interaction Activities and second is Communicative Fluency Activities. Those two activities are discussed as follows.

1) Communicative Interaction Activities

According to Paulston and Bruder (1976: 60-79), there are four basic types of activities in various combinations for developing communicative competence:

a)Social Formulas and Dialogues

In these activities, there is a progression from tightly controlled language use, where the student is learning the social formulas, to a situation where he can use them (Paulston and Bruder, 1976: 62). The teacher spends some time to explain the meaning, the connotations, and the situation which would be used in various expressions. The students in each pair take turns reading from the printed dialogue while the other answers from memory until they can run through both parts of the dialogue.

b)Community-oriented Tasks

Community-oriented tasks are sets of exercises which compel the student to interact with native speakers outside the classroom. There are two points to be notice: communicative participation in the community or real situations and the collection of highly relevant and needed information (Paulston and Bruder, 1976: 63). The assignment for students is handed out in class and the topic explained in general terms. Then it is up to the students to find the answers outside the class (Paulston and Bruder, 1976: 65). An alternative to oral reports is to have them act out their answers in a role play.

c) Problem-solving Activities

These exercises are just what they sound; the students are presented with a problem and some alternative solutions from which they have to choose one (Paulston and Bruder, 1976: 67). Most of the problem-solving activities involve group work. Paulston and Bruder advice a few basic considerations. The group may depend partly on the size of the class and ideally, the size is not more than four or five in a group. Teacher should mix up between the talkative student and the quiet one and also switch the groups around, and change the group leaders as well (1976: 69).

d)Role play

Role-plays are exercises where the student is assigned a fictitious role from which he has to improvise some kind of behavior toward the other role characters in the exercise (Paulston and Bruder, 1976: 70). Role play can be very simple and the improvisation highly controlled, or it can be very elaborate. The format of a role play consists of three basic parts: the situation, the roles, and useful expressions.

The situation sets the scene and the plot, i.e., explains the situation and describes the task or action to be accomplished. The roles section assigns roles, the list of characters. In the roles, we need to include such information as personality, experience, status, personal problems, and desires. Useful expressions contains the linguistic information, primarily expressions, phrases, and technical vocabulary. Grammar patterns, which

are necessary, also fit in here, e.g., WH questions for an interview situation (Paulston and Bruder, 1976: 70).

2) Communicative Fluency Activities

In his book, Klippel (2005) introduces a way to make and arrange communicative fluency activities for language teaching. His book contains activities with their important sections and exercises. According to Klippel (2005), there are several principles in developing and selecting the activities. First, the activities should reflect a message-oriented communication, focus on learner-centered activities, and produce an active learning, cooperation and empathy.

In message-oriented communication, the target language is actually used as a means of communication. A prime instance of this use is classroom discourse, i.e. getting things done in the lesson (Klippel, 2005: 3). There are two devices which help the teacher in making up communicative activities.

First, the information gap exercises force the participants to exchange information in order to find a solution, for example, reconstitute a text, solve a puzzle, and write a summary. Second is opinion gap. This gap is created by exercises incorporating controversial texts or ideas, and it involve the participants to describe and defend their view of these ideas. Opinion gap activity can be organized by letting the participants share their feelings about an experience they have in common (Klippel, 2005: 4)

Many of the activities are concerned with the learners themselves. Klippel (2005: 5) believed that for learners who are studying English in a non- English-speaking setting it is very important to experience real communicative situations in which they learn to express their own views and attitudes, and in which they are taken seriously as people.

The degree of learner activity depends, among other things, on the type of material they are working on. Learner activity in a more literal sense of the word can also imply doing and making things and it forces the students to read, write, and talk in the foreign languages as well. Setting up an opinion poll in the classroom also makes students actively interview each other and it literally gets them out of their seats. Further devices to make learners more active are games.

Klippel (2005: 7-10) also gives the method how to use the activities.

The methods deal with the class or group, the teacher’s role, and ways of

organizing discussion groups, as well as giving hints on the selection and use of the activities in class.

a)Atmosphere

Speaking about oneself is not something that everyone does with ease. Klippel (2005: 7) stated that the first essential requirement for the use of learner-centered activities is a relaxed and friendly atmosphere in the group. Only then can the aims of these activities be achieved: cooperation and the growth of the understanding.

Groups or classes which have been formed and have a new teacher may not develop this pleasant kind of group feeling immediately, so expectantly, activities dealing with very personal topics should be avoided. Warming-up exercises and jigsaw tasks may stimulate a good atmosphere. In any case teachers should be able to select activities which their students will feel at ease with ( Klippel, 2005: 8).

b)The teacher’s role

Klippel (2005: 8) said that many exercises would run themselves as soon as they get underway. The teacher then has to decide whether to join in the activity as an equal member or remain in the background to help and observe. There are advantages of those two roles of teacher above. When teachers become equal member in class, the psychological distance may be reduced between students and teacher and then students get to know their teacher better. Teacher also has to refrain from continually correcting the students.

In the contrary, when teachers remain in the background to help or become non-participation person, teacher may observe the performance of several students in the foreign language and note the common mistakes for revision at a later stage. The teacher should also be careful not to correct

students’ errors too frequently. It seems far better for the teacher to use the

activities for observation and to help only when the students themselves demand help (Klippel, 2005: 8).

c) Ways of organizing discussion groups

According to Klippel (2005: 9-10), a number of different ways of setting up the communicative activities in his book are explained in the description of the activities themselves. A few major types are described below:

(1) Buzz groups: A problem is discussed in small groups for a view minutes before views or solutions are reported to the whole class. (2) Hearing: „Experts’ discuss a topical question and may be interviewed

by a panel of students who then have to make a decision about that question.

(3) Fishbowl: All the members of the class sit in a big circle. In the middle of the circle there are five chairs. Three are occupied by students who maybe, have controversial topic will start the discussion. Students from the outer circle may replace the speakers by tapping them on the shoulder.

(4) Network: The class in divided into two groups which should not have more than 10 students each. Student who is speaking will hold the ball of string and when he finished he gives the ball of string to the next speaker. As the result, a web of string develops, showing who talked the most and who the least.

(5) Onion: The class is divided into two equal groups. Then the chairs are arranged in a double, outer and inward circle are facing each other. Each student in inner circle sits facing the student in outer circle.

They have a discussion and then they can move on one chair to have a new partner to discuss again.

(6) Star: Four to six small groups try to find a common view or solution. Each group elects their speaker in the groups and the speaker will enter the discussion in the other group.

(7) Market: The entire students walk about the room; each talk to several others.

(8) Opinion vote: Each student receives voting cards and then discusses the different opinions.

(9) Forced contribution: Numbers are distributed which determine the order of speaking to make sure that all the students give their views in the discussions.

d)Selection of activities

Klippel (2005: 10) gives suggestions about how to select the activities, which he creates in his book. We can select randomly from skimming the whole book.

e) Using the Activities

According to Klippel (2005: 10-11), once we have found a suitable activity for our class, we should do the following:

(1) Prepare your materials in sufficient quantity.

(2) Read through the „procedure’ section and if necessary note down the main steps. Think about how you are going to introduce the activity and whether your students will need any extra help.

(3) Decide which role you are going to adopt (joining, helping, observing) and stick to it throughout the activity.

Unit 8 – Giving Direction Within the Building | 55 LABORATORIUM

ADMITTING OFFICE

X-RAY ROOM

MATERNITY

WAITING ROOM

ORTHODONTIST LIFT

GENERAL

PRACTITIONER

WAITING ROOM PEDIATRICIAN

GIFT SHOP CAFETERIA

BANK

Unit 8 – Giving Direction Within the Building | 54

Bibliography

____________. (http://www.elllo.org/english/Games/G050Hospitals.htm, accessed on July 16, 2009)

____________. (http://www.cartoonstock.com/directory/r/receptionist.asp, accessed on August 24, 2009)

____________. (www.cartoonstock.com/directory/i/inattentive.asp, accessed on August 24, 2009)

____________. (http://www.cartoonstock.com/directory/h/hospital_visit.asp, accessed on August 24, 2009)

____________. (http://www.cartoonstock.com/directory/p/patient.asp, accessed on August 24, 2009)

____________.(http://www.cartoonstock.com/cartoonview.asp?catref=pwen174, accessed on August 24, 2009)

Brigham Young University English Language Center and TALL. Listening and Speaking Introduction Level.

(http://elc.byu.edu/teacher/binders_policies/listening_speaking/ls_objtsk_0.pdf, accessed on August 4, 2009)

Brigham Young University English Language Center and TALL. Listening and Speaking Level 1.

(http://elc.byu.edu/teacher/binders_policies/listening_speaking/ls_objtsk_1.pdf, accessed on August 4, 2009)

Brigham Young University English Language Center and TALL. Listening and Speaking Level 2.

(http://elc.byu.edu/teacher/binders_policies/listening_speaking/ls_objtsk_2.pdf, accessed on August 4, 2009)

Brigham Young University English Language Center and TALL. Listening and Speaking Level3.

(http://elc.byu.edu/teacher/binders_policies/listening_speaking/ls_objtsk_3.pdf, accessed on August 4, 2009)

Bradshaw, Margaret. Domain Five health: Seeing A Doctor. ( http://www.nc-et.info/ESL/Curriculum%20_Guide/Domain5_Lesson2_Seeing_a_Doctor.doc, accessed on July 16, 2009)

Carver, Tina Kasloff & Sandra Douglas Fatinos. 1998. A Conversation Book I: English in Everyday Life. New York: Prentice Hall Regents.

Unit 8 – Giving Direction Within the Building | 54 Health Head Images. IllustrationSeries: At the Hospital.

(http://www.fotosearch.com/health-head-images/illustration-series-at-the-hospital/UNM157/, accessed on November 5, 2009)

Lushpix Illustration. Call the Doc ( http://www.fotosearch.com/lushpix-illustration/call-the-doc/UNN588/, accessed on November 5, 2009)

Moore, Brendan. 1979. English for the office. London: The Macmillan Press.

Tunas, Racquel R. and Dominuez, Pilar Cuder. 2002. Unit 2: Review Activities p.g. 70. (http://www.onestopenglish.com, accessed on July 17, 2009). Macmillan Publishers, Ltd.

59

REVIEW ON VOCABULARY

Review Vocabulary Unit 1, 2, 3, and 4

Review Vocabulary

 Occupations

Assistant: asisten Cashier: kasir Mechanic: mekanik Dentist: dokter gigi

Housekeeper: pembantu rumah tangga factory worker: buruh pabrik

farmer: petani secretary: sekretaris

businessperson: pengusaha accountant: akuntan lawyer: pengacara salesperson: sales doctor: dokter

 Workplaces

Drugstore: apotek Service: layanan

station/gas station: pom bensin grocery store: toko kebutuhan pokok butcher shop: toko daging

beauty salon: salon kecantikan barbershop: salon cukur rambut library: perpustakaan

office: kantor

Factory: pabrik Hotel: hotel Bank: bank

Restaurant: rumah makan Store: toko

 Acquaintances

Friend: teman Neighbor: tetangga Teacher: guru Boss: bos

Coworker: teman kerja Roommate: teman sekamar

 Family: Immediate

Wife: istri Husband: suami Mother: ibu Father: ayah Parents: orang tua

Brother: saudara laki-laki Sister:saudara perempuan Son: anak laki-laki

Daughter: anak perempuan Children: anak-anak

Review Vocabulary

 Personal Information

first name: nama depan middle name: nama tengah last name: nama belakang maiden name: nama tengah old: umur

telephone: telepon

Birth: kelahiran Date: tanggal

Birthday: tanggal lahir Work: pekerjaan Home: rumah

60 phone: telepon

area code: kode area address: alamat street: jalan city: kota state: negara

Zip Code: kode pos

 Address and

Abbreviations Avenue Ave. Drive Dr. Road Rd. Street St. Lane Ln. Boulevard Blvd. Apartment Apt.

Review Vocabulary Unit 5, 6, and 7

Review Vocabulary: Body

 Body: Head

Face: wajah Eyes: mata Ears: telinga Nose: hidung Mouth: mulut Lips: bibir Tooth: gigi

Teeth: gigi (jamak) Tongue: lidah Jaw: rahang Chin: dagu Cheek: pipi Forehead: dahi Eyebrow: alis

Eyelashes: bulu mata Pupil: pupil

Tears: air mata Head: kepala Neck: leher Brain: otak Hair: rambut

 Body: Structure

Bones: tulang Skin: kulit Muscles: otot Blood: darah Heart: jantung Lungs: paru-paru

 Body: Leg

Leg: kaki Foot: kaki

Feet: kaki (jamak) Knee: lutut

Ankle: pergelangan kaki

Toe: jari kaki Toenail: kuku jari kaki

Heel: tumit

 Body: Arm

Shoulder: bahu Arm: lengan Elbow: siku Wrist: pergelangan tangan Hand: tangan Finger: jari tangan Fingernail: kuku jari tangan

 Body: Trunk

Chest: dada Back: punggung Waist: pinggang Breast: payudara Hip: pinggul Stomach: perut

Review Vocabulary

Medical nouns

Blood pressure: tekanan darah

Weight: berat badan Urine: air kencing Height: tinggi badan X-ray: sinar X Test: Uji coba Temperature: suhu Disease: penyakit

Examination: pemeriksaan Sample: contoh

Operation: operasi

Symptom Nouns

Ache: sakit Ailment: sakit Allergy: alergi

Backache: sakit punggung Cough: batuk

Dizzy: pusing

Earache: sakit telinga Fever: demam

Flu: flu

Headache: sakit kepala Indigestion:

Laryngitis:

Toothache: sakit gigi Stomachache: sakit perut Bee sting: sengatan lebah Broken: patah

Itch: gatal Chills: demam Infection: infeksi

61

Symptom Adjectives

Hot: panas Cold: dingin Numb: gila Painful: sakit Sore: sakit Sick: sakit Sharp: tajam Dull: tumpul

Nauseous: Pain: sakit Sneeze: bersin Sore: sakit

Treatment

Remedy:

Cure: penyembuhan Rest: istirahat

Drink liquids: Medicine: obat Prescription: resep Cream: krim, salep Drops:

Injection: suntikan Antibiotic: antibiotik Pills: pil

Review Vocabulary Unit 8

Review Vocabulary

Directions

Turn: belok Right: kanan Left: kiri Straight: lurus Corner: pojok Next: dekat/sebelah In front of: depan Building Interiors Floor: lantai

Hall: aula depan Stairs: tangga

Upstairs: naik tangga Downstairs: turun tangga Elevator: lift

Escalator: tangga berjalan Restroom: kamar mandi

Men’s room: toilet pria Ladies’ room: toilet wanita

Office: kantor Door: pintu Lobby: lobi

Hospital rooms

Information desk: bagian informasi Intensive Care Unit (ICU): IGD Operating room: ruang operasi Waiting room: ruang tunggu Main entrance: pintu masuk utama Laboratory: laboratorium

Exam room: ruang pemeriksaan Admitting: pendaftaran

Emergency: gawat darurat Cafeteria: kantin